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Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests 
for Use in China 

By 
Herman Chan-En Liu 



Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the 

Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of 

Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy, 

Columbia University 



Published by 

^tat^txfi College, Columbia ?Hniliets(itp 

New York City 
1922 



% 



Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests 
for Use in China 

By 
Herman Chan-En Liu 




Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the 

Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of 

Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy, 

Columbia University 



Published by 

tlTeacJeri^ Colleue, Columbia ^nibers^itp 

New York City 
1922 



Copyright 1922, hy HERMAN ChAX-Ex LiC 









ewe 

«UC 30 Ittt 



to my friends 
Emilie Bretthauer 
James H. Franklin 
Andrew MacLeish 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Grateful thanks and appreciation are hereby expressed to Pro- 
fessor Edward Lee Thorndike, of Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity, under whose almost daily guidance and inspiration this 
study has been carried out; to Miss Margaret P. Rae, principal of 
New York Public School No. io8, for her ready cooperation and 
assistance in making the experiment successful; and to Professor 
William Anderson McCall, Professor Henry Alford Ruger, Miss 
Ella Woodyard , of Teachers College, and a host of others for much 
valuable aid. 

Herman Chan-En Liu 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Introduction i 

A. The Problem I 

B. Intelligence Examination in China i 

C. The Development of Non-Verbal Tests in 
America 6 

11. The Experiment 12 

A. The Preliminary Plan 12 

B. Tests Used in the Experiment 18 

C. Method of Procedure 21 

III. Formation of a Criterion 28 

A. Elements of a Criterion 28 

B. Test Scores Weighting 33 

C. Method of Selection of the Final Criterion . . 39 

IV. Selection of Test Elements 43 

A. Selection of Test Elements by Correlation 
Method 43 

B. Selection of Tests by Rating 49 

C. Selection of Tests by Partial Correlation ... 50 

D. Selection of Tests by Composite Method ... 52 

E. Weighting by Regression Equation 55 

V. Re-testing ■. 58 

A. Procedure of Re- testing 58 

B. Statistical Study 61 

VI. Alternative Forms and Standardization 63 

A. Alternative Forms 63 

B. Standardization 64 

1. Norms 65 

2. Scaling 66 



^-iii Contents 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VII. The Chinese XonA'erbal Tests 68 

A. The Nature of the Tests 68 

B. Instructions to Examiner 69 

C. Directions for Giving the Tests 70 

D. Directions for Scoring the Tests 73 

E. Treatment of Results 74 

F. Caution 74 

MIL Summary AND CoNXLUSioNs 75 

Appendices 

A. Samples of Form A of the Chinese NonA'erbal Intelli- 
gence Examination 77 

B. Samples of Records Kept 78 

Bibliography 83 



INDEX OF TABLES 

NUMBER PAGE 

I. Distribution of Age and the Numerical Values Assigned . . 30 

II. Age Distribution Showing the Slope and the Increase of Scores 
as Age Advances (Data from Boys Who Have Taken the Pint- 

ner Non-Language Tests) 35 

III. Grade Distribution of Pressey Scale 36 

IV. Weighting of the Scales According to Q 38 

V. Data for School Criterion (10 Selected Pupils) . 40 

VI. Data for Calculation of the Final Criterion (10 Selected Pupils) 42 

VI I. Correlations of Individual Tests with Final Criterion by Shep- 

pard's and Product-Moment Methods 45 

VI 1 1. Correlations of Individual Tests with Combination of Beta 4 

and 6, by Sheppard's Formula 46 

IX. Correlations of the Different Scales with the Final Criterion 

and the Inter-Correlations of the Individual Tests .... 47 

X. Correlations between the Individual Tests and the Basic Tests 

(Pintner 2 and 3, and Beta 6) 49 

XL Ratings of the Individual Tests by Competent Judges ... 51 

XI I. Individual Tests Rated re Application to Chinese 52 

XIII. Correlations of the Individual Tests with the Final Criterion 
with the Elements of the Basic Tests Eliminated (^12.3) . . 53 

XIV. Combined Value of the Individual Tests, as Determined by 
Ratings and Partial r Method 54 

XV. Data for Calculation of Regression Equation 56 

XVI . Distribution of Re-testing Scores by Grades 59 

XVII. Distribution of Re-testing Scores by Ages 60 



INDEX OF FIGURES 

NUMBER PAGE 

1 . The Nine-Ring Puzzle 4 

2. The Seven Mysterious Boards 4 

3. Illustrations of the Seven Mysterious Boards 4 

4. Illustrations of the Seven Mysterious Boards 4 

5. Showing 27 Per Cent Overlapping of Grade III over Grade IV in 

the Scores of Pressey Primer Scale 37 

6. Showing 21 Per Cent Overlapping of Grade III over Grade l\' in 

the Scores of Myers Mental Measure 37 

7. Showing 15.2 Per Cent Overlapping of Grade III over Grade IV in 

the Scores of Pintner Non-Language Tests 37 

8. Showing 12 Per Cent Overlapping of Grade III over Grade I\' in the 
Scores of Army Beta Examination 37 

9. Showing 9.8 Per Cent Overlapping of Grade III over Grade I\' in 

the Scores of Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence 37 



CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

A. THE PROBLEM 

Psychological tests which have been applied in America with 
great success are now being experimented with in China. Progres- 
sive Chinese educators who are attempting to introduce the meas- 
urement movement into China, however, are confronted with the 
problem of procuring and selecting suitable test material. China, 
with its distinctive civilization and numerous dialects, presents a 
difficult field for the literal transcription of the American intelligence 
tests. This difficulty virtually prevents a widespread use in China 
of the language test, and makes necessary the construction of a non- 
language test. The present study is an attempt to develop a non- 
verbal scale, which, because of the elimination of language and 
schooling factors, may be used in China as an independent measure 
of general intelligence or as a supplement to a language test. 

B. INTELLIGENCE EXAMINATIONS IN CHINA 

The practice of setting intelligence examinations is not new in 
China. It is as old as our history, although the traditional methods 
have been crude and pseudo-psychological. 

The earliest methods, which still prevail, are Kan Hsiang, phys- 
iognomy-reading, and Shan Ming, fortune-telling. Pseudo-psy- 
chologists in the guise of fortune-tellers and popular physiognomists 
are found everywhere. They are frequently consulted by unedu- 
cated parents as to the intelligence of their children, whose careers 
and destinies they foretell. The calculations of these pseudo-psy- 
chologists are said to be based upon the hour and date of birth , and 
physiognomic and anthropometric characteristics. 

The system of competitive examinations, employed in China for 
centuries, was a sort of intelligence test. Its purpose was the selec- 
tion of candidates for civil service. Scholars gathered at the exam- 
ination halls, which were located in every district. There they were 



2 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

confined in little cells in which they composed classical essays on 
assigned subjects. Examinations were conducted and papers graded 
by high government officials. The results were announced with 
great ceremony, and the successful candidates honored with "Kung 
Ming," — the equivalent of American academic degrees. 

The practice was founded on the theory that only the intelligent 
and educated men should rule. No age or birth qualifications were 
required for participation in these examinations. Youngsters under 
twelve years of age, however, were sometimes released from the 
rigid, formal standards. In such cases the regular examination was 
often replaced by a series of "opposites or matching tests," in which 
the applicants were required to match assigned words and phrases. 
For instance, "East" would be expected to be matched with the 
word "West"; "above" with "below"; "mountains" with "oceans." 
The following is a typical "Dui Dzi," or opposites test: ^ 



(a) Chiang 


Fu 


Djoh 


Ma 


{h) Wang 


Dzi 


Cheng 


Lung 



The translation of matching phrase {a) with phrase {b) is as 
follows: 2 

(a) Consider Father Being Horse 

{b) Expect Son Becoming Dragon 

Of the old intelligence tests used in the schools of China, there 
were certain kinds called "Tien Dzih," that is, "completion tests." 
Some teachers occasionally employed these tests in judging the 
brightness of their pupils; others emplo^'ed them as supplementary 

^ A story relates that a certain farmer carried his young son on his back to the 
examination hall. The examiner, upon the arrival of the youngster, was surprised at 
his presence and inquired of him how he had managed to come all the way from his 
distant home. The boy replied: "I came on my father's back." The boj-'s answer 
at once suggested to the examiner a topic for the opposites test, so he said: "Well, 
if you can match the phrase which I am about to give you, you are passed." The 
examiner then requested the boy to match "Consider Father Being Horse." The 
clever child, without a moment's hesitation, replied: "Expect Son Becoming Dragon." 
He had matched the assigned phrase so well, that he was given a pass without further 
examination. 

^ These are not strictly "opposites tests," as understood in America; but rather 
matching tests. They are comprehensi\e, requiring on the part of the examinee 
quick understanding and sound reasoning. 



Introduction 3 

methods of teaching elementary composition. Problems in compo- 
sition were often made by omitting a few words from a well-con- 
structed sentence, necessitating the filling in of the blanks by the 
children. 

A type of test similar to the puzzles used by Ruger is also quite 
common in China. The most famous of these puzzles is the "Kiu 
Lien Huan" — a nine-ring puzzle (see Fig. i) , consisting of nine con- 
nected copper rings mounted on a bar with a rod running through the 
center of the rings. The puzzle is how to get the rod out of the rings 



^^^^ ^^^ 




Fig, I. The Nine-Ring Puzzle. 



— a task which requires reasoning, and which seldom is solved by 
the trial-and-error method. The ring puzzle is used merely as a 
toy, not as a formal test, yet one often hears the remark, "Solve 
this puzzle and let us see how bright you are." 

"Performance tests" also have been in use for centuries in China. 
The most noted one is "Yih Chih Tu," also called "Tsih Chiao Pan" 
(see Figs. 2, 3 and 4). Translated literally into English, it would 
be called "Increasing Wisdom Board," or the "Seven Mysterious 
Boards." It was called the "Increasing Wisdom Board" because 
playing with it was believed to increase one's wisdom. It was called 
the "Seven Mysterious Boards" because with the seven pieces of 
different shapes and sizes which made up the game, many forms of 
men, animals, birds, and inanimate objects could be constructed. 
The game was played by any number of persons, each with his own 
set of forms. The purpose was to see which person could construct 
the largest number of objects out of his seven pieces, the winner 
being considered the most intelligent person in the group. ^ 

Mt is said that the game originated in the ancient imperial palace among the 
^ women of the court, who, in the great amount of leisure time at their disposal, wel- 
comed such sport. Later it became popular among the people. 



Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 





I \ 


\ ' 


\ ^ / 


/\ 


/ 


? 




/ 




\. 


/ 




\ 



f; G-. 7- 




Fio. 5 




Fig. 2. The Seven Mysterious Boards. 

Fig. 3. Illustrations of the Seven Mysterious Boards: 

I Man walking; 2 carriage; 3 man running; 4 and 5 two animals fighting. 
Fig. 4. Illustrations of the Seven Mysterious Boards: 

Candle sticks and different kinds of vessels. 



Introduction 5 

The various tests which have been described here cannot be 
termed ''inteUigence tests" in the strictly psychological sense be- 
cause they are not standardized. They are not extensively used as a 
measure of general intelligence, but rather as intellectual games. 
They do demonstrate, however, that the practice of intelligence 
examinations, although crude and pseudo-psychological, does exist 
and has existed in China for centuries. It is quite possible that 
some of these old methods and materials may prove useful in the 
construction of a genuine intelligence test for China. 

It is only within the last few years that scientific psychological 
measurements have been iniroduced in China. The earliest known 
experimental work on the subject is that conducted by Dr.W .W. 
Creighton.^ From 1915 to 1917, under the direction of Professor 
W. H. Pyle, of the University of Missouri, Dr. Creighton made a 
study of the mental and physical characteristics of Cantonese chil- 
dren. The subjects under examination numbered approximately 
five hundred, most of them ranging from ten to eighteen years in 
age, although twenty- five women were among those examined. The 
mental tests used in this experiment were those of rote memory, 
logical memory, substitution, analogies, and dot patterns. In con- 
ducting this experiment Dr. Creighton met with great difficulties 
as a result of the many dialects prevailing in this province. In his 
report he says: 'Tn the mental measurements we were confronted 
at once by language difficulties." 

In 1918 Professor G. D. Walcott ^ measured the intelligence of 
the students in the senior class in Tsinghua College, Peking, who 
averaged twenty- two years of age. Professor Walcott used the 
Stanford Revision of the Binet Scale, with the Scott Group Test as 
a check. The results of the experiment were not very satisfactory 
as, in addition to the insufficiency of the scale for persons of that age, 
the language difficulties were insurmountable. 

Somewhat later, in the fall of 1920, the Nanking Government 
Teachers College tried psychological tests for the entrance examina- 
tion. This is the first attempt made by Chinese educators to intro- 

^ Pyle, VV. H.: "A Study of the Mental and Physical Characteristics of the Chinese," 
School and Society, Vol. viii, No, 192 (August 31, 191 8), pp. 264-69. 

2 Walcott, G. D. "The Intelligence of Chinese Students," School and Society, xi, 
1920, pp. 474-80. 



6 Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use i?! China 

duce scientific intelligence tests into China. Two psychologists 
educated in America, Professors H. C. Chen and S. C. Liao,^ 
devised five tests. The correlation of these tests and the average 
grades of the regular examination was .39.- 

Psychological tests for entrance examinations were next taken 
up by the Peking Government Teachers College. The correlation 
between the tests and the average grades of the regular examination 
was practically zero (.000046).^ 

At the present time, Chinese progressive educators, especially 
those trained in America, are eager to introduce the use of psycho- 
logical tests into China. Institutions, such as Nanking and Peking 
Teachers Colleges, as indicated above, have already started the 
movement. A few private and missionary' schools have also adopted 
some form of tests. The Stanford-Binet Scale has been translated, 
although it is little used. Aside from these isolated experiments, 
however, very little has been done. Psychological tests remain 
virtually unknown. Here lies a great unexplored field of endeavor 
for the young Chinese schoolman trained in modern scientific 
method. He needs to understand, however, the difftculties which 
the use of the numerous dialects and the large percentage of illiter- 
acy offer to the use of any language scale. Evidently a non-verbal 
test may hope to succeed where the language test is totally inade- 
quate. The development of such a non-language scale is the pur- 
pose of the present study. 

C. THE DEVELOPMENT OF XON-VERBAL TESTS IN AMERICA 

Psychological tests may be roughly classified into two main 
groups: namely, language tests and non-language tests. The for- 
mer includes those tests which require verbal response from the sub- 
ject. The latter group of tests does not require such verbal response. 
The non-language tests, again, may be subdivided into a group of 
performance tests which require the doing of some task by means of 

^ Journal of Educational Research, \'ol. iii, No. 5 (May, 1921), p. 394. 

* As this goes to press, the author has received a copy of Mental Tests in China, 
written by Professors H. C. Chen and C. S. Liao. It contains thirty-five different 
tests, twenty-four of which are translated from American tests. 

3 The data are found in the Peking Teachers College Weekly, Xo. 132 (September 
II, 1921), p. 3, but the correlation was computed by the author by the product-moment 
method. 



Introduction 7 

certain actual mechanical manipulations, and a group which require 
the subject to work with geometrical designs, figures or pictures, 
indicating the results of his thinking by making lines or pictures. 

Non-language or non-verbal intelligence tests are the outgrowth 
of the intelligence measurement movement. Of recent development 
and used extensively only within the last two or three years, these 
non-verbal tests have shared the fame of the language tests. Among 
the tests devised by Alfred Binet, father of the movement for the 
measurement of intelligence, and published in his 1905-06 series are 
a number of tests which do not require verbal responses.^ For 
example, in the visual coordinations test, the examiner moves a 
lighted match slowly before the subject's eyes and notes whether he 
follows the movement with the properly coordinated movements of 
the head and eyes. In the test known as * 'prehension provoked 
tactually," he places the small wooden cube in contact with the 
palm or the back of the subject's hand to determine whether he can 
execute properly coordinated movements of grasping. In the draw- 
ing test, he shows the subject two drawings, permits him to look at 
them for ten seconds, and then requires him to draw the views from 
memory. None of these tests expects a verbal response from the 
subject. 

The scale devised by these French psychologists, Alfred Binet 
and T. Simon, was first translated and adapted for American use 
by Goddard.2 Kuhlman ^ and Wallin ^ followed with further adap- 
tations. The latest revisions of the scale are by Yerkes, Bridges, 
and Hardwick,^ by Terman ® and by Herring.'^ They all adhere 

' The other non-language tests in the Binet-Simon 1905 series are tests numbered 
3, 4, 5, 10, 12, 21, 22, 23, and 29. In the 1908 series the non-language tests are num- 
bered 9, 10, II, 12, 14, 16, 23, 24, 33, 54, For the complete account see A. Binet 
and T. Simon, "Le developpement de I'intelligence chez les enfants," in L'Annee 
Psychologique, 14, 1908, pp. 1-94; and A. Binet and T. Simon, "L'intelligence des imbe- 
ciles," in L'Annee psychologique, 1909, pp. 1-147. 

2 Goddard, H. H.: "The Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence. Revised," 
Training School Bulletin, Vol. viii (1911;, pp. 56-62. 

^ Kuhlman, F.: "A Revision of the Binet-Simon System for Measuring the Intel- 
ligence of Children," Journal of Psycho- A sthenics, monograph supnlement, No. i , p. 41 . 

* Wallin, J. E.: Experimental Studies of Mental Defectives: A Critique of the Binet- 
Simon Tests. 

* Yerkes, R. M., Bridges, J. W. and Hard wick, P. S.: A Point Scale for Measuring 
Mental Ability. 

'' Terman, Lewis M.: The Measurement of Intelligence. 

' Herring, John P.: Significance of Certain Elements in Intelligence Examinations, 
unpublished Ph.D. dissertation (Columbia University). 



8 Xon- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

more or less closely to the original Binet Scale, and consequently 
some of their tests are non-verbal in nature. 

In spite of the merits of the Binet-Simon Scale and its revisions, 
their chief deficiency lies in the large proportion of tasks requiring 
language responses. This criticism of the scale was vigorously pre- 
sented by Ayres in 191 1. He pointed out that the Binet tests pre- 
dominantly reflect the child's ability fluently to use words, and do 
not reveal his ability to do acts. Thus, it gives "a warped and par- 
tial measure of his real degree of intelligence." ^ 

The language difficulty, inherent in the Binet-Simon Scale and its 
various revisions, became evident when the clinical ps^xhologists 
attempted to apply it in various fields of practical work. They 
found that the Scale was utterly inadequate for the mental examina- 
tion of non-English speaking people, speech defectives, the deaf , and 
those with language difficulties. Hence they introduced non-lan- 
guage tests which do not require language responses on the part of 
the child for adequate performance. Among those who first used 
the non-language test were Healy and Fernald.- In carr>'ing out 
mental examinations at the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute of 
Chicago, they had been confronted with the problem of testing a 
cosmopolitan population. Some of the inmates were illiterate, and 
some, though educated in their own tongue, were unable to speak 
the English language. Since they represented most of the nation- 
alities and languages of Europe no single test requiring language 
directions and responses could be adequate to measure them. In 
discussing their work, Healy and Fernald say: ''The Binet-Simon 
Scale helps little where the language factor is a barrier, either on 
account of foreign parentage or insufficient schooling, or with unedu- 
cated deaf and dumb children." ^ They became convinced that 
language, as far as possible, should be eliminated from the mental 
examinations given to such subjects. They say: "In predicting the 
possible development of an individual under various conditions, it is 
most desirable to ascertain the mental ability quite apart from the 
individual's experience in formal training in our language, or indeed 

^ Aj-res, L. P.: "The Binet-Simon Measuring Scale for Intelligence: Some Criticisms 
and Suggestions," Psychological Clinic, Vol. v (1911), pp. 187-96. 

-Healy, W., and Fernald. G. M.: "Tests for Practical Mental Classifications," 
Psxchological Monographs, Vol. 54, Xo. 2, pp. 4-5. 

' Ibid. 



Introduction 9 

any language. It often becomes necessary to classify mentally a 
subject who has had no education in English-speaking schools, or 
indeed who has had but little schooHng of any kind." ^ 

The work carried on at the Institute not only proved the inade- 
quacy of the language tests, but demonstrated the practical value 
of the non-language tests. Healy and Fernald conclude as follows: 
"On one occasion we found ourselves able to demonstrate satisfac- 
torily that a Gypsy boy of fifteen, quite innocent of schooling and 
knowledge of the three R's, had at least fair, if not good, native 
ability. And repeatedly a number of our tests have proved most 
serviceable in mentally classifying young, deaf and dumb chil- 
dren." 1 

Knox, in^ his work among the immigrants at Ellis Island, found it 
impossible (even with the services of an interpreter) to use scales in 
which language responses were required. Faced with this language 
obstacle, and under the necessity to diagnose mental disease and 
mental deficiency among the immigrants, Knox devised a series of 
non-language tests, many of which are excellent and still widely 
used in psychological clinics. 

Pintner and Patterson^ also found the language scale "absolutely 
inadequate to test the mentality of deaf children." They experi- 
mented with the Binet-Simon Scale, but were confronted with 
numerous difficulties, such as lack of comprehension of certain tasks 
due to physical deficiency which in turn had made for lack in the 
environment of opportunity for forms of experience needed to ac- 
quire the proper test reaction. Consequently, they constructed a 
scale of performance tests which requires practically no instructions 
for the child other than natural gestures. Pintner and Patterson 
consider the non-language feature of the test as a sine qua nan in 
the measurement of mentality in the deaf. As to the importance of 
the non-language tests, they say: "Here we have a group of indi- 
viduals, completely shut off from hearing language, and for that 
reason laboring under a language difficulty that only in rare cases is 
surmounted to the extent of making them comparable in language 

^Ibid. 

^ Knox, H. A.: "A Scale Based on the Work at Ellis Island for Establishing Mental 
Defects," Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. LXii (March 7, 1914), 
pp. 741-47. 

' Pintner, R. and Patterson, D, G.: "The Binet Scale and the Deaf Child," Journal 
of Educational Psychology, Vol. vi (1915), pp. 202 ff. 



lO Xon-Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in Chiyia 

ability to ordinary- hearing individuals. Any kind of tests involving 
reading or spoken language cannot be used as a test of their mental- 
ity. If we employ such tests for measuring the mentality of the deaf 
and use the standardization obtained from hearing children, we will 
not be measuring mentality but merely difference in language abil- 
ity. There may be a greater percentage of feeble-mindedness 
among the deaf than among the hearing but the fact that a deaf child 
does not measure up to the language standard of a hearing child is 
no indication of mental deficiency." The performance tests lately 
have been used not only for the deaf but also for the non-English- 
speaking children, speech defectives, and children from different 
language environments. 

The development of the non-language tests was greatly advanced, 
and their practical value definitely recognized, as a result of the 
United States Army psychological examinations.^ In 191 7, when 
the psychologists took up the personnel work in the Army they soon 
discovered that many of the men were handicapped by language 
difffculties. In order to permit the illiterates a real opportunity 
to show their ability, a non-language scale was constructed. Dem- 
onstration charts and pantomime were used to convey the instruc- 
tions to the examinees. These methods require no language direc- 
tions or responses. This scale, known as the Army Beta Examina- 
tion, consisted of seven tests, including maze, cube analysis. X-0 
series, digit-symbol, number checking, pictorial completion, and 
geometrical construction . The scale was applied to 23 ,547 men . I ts 
results correlate with the Army language examination Alpha to the 
amount of .80; with Stanford-Binet. .73; with the composite of 
Alpha. Beta, and Stanford-Binet. .91 . This high correlation demon- 
strates the practicability of making non-language tests and the 
feasibility of their use where the language tests fail utterly. The 
unexpected efficiency of the Army Beta Examination thus demon- 
strated during the war. later brought about a mushroom growth of 
the non-verbal test material. Thorndike.- champion of the measure- 
ment movement, who had charge of much of the statistical work in 
the development of the Army tests, was first to utilize the data and 
experience gained from these tests. The Thorndike Xon-Verbal 

1 Yoakum, C. S. and Yerkes, R. M.: Army Mental Tests. 

2 Thorndike, E. L.: "A Standard Group Examination of Intelligence Independent 
of Language," Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 3, No. i (March, 1919), pp. 13-32. 



Introduction 1 1 

Examination follows the general nature of the Army Beta, but elim- 
inates one weakness by providing ten alternative forms of the exam- 
ination instead of the single form, thus reducing the error in measure- 
ment caused by unfair tutoring. Such alternative forms widen the 
field of usefulness of tests in many ways, permitting a study of the 
growth of intelligence by repeated testing, comparison of groups 
and individuals and increased reliability in the determination of the 
intelligence of groups and individuals. 

Pintner,^ who with Patterson constructed the Performance Scale, 
has also, since the war, devised a non-language group intelligence 
test. He realized that his Performance Scale, although it required 
no language response, was still clumsy and not convenient for appli- 
cation to a group. Consequently, in his later scale he devised a set 
of six non-language tests for group use. When compared with the 
results obtained from the Binet-Simon Scale the correlation was 
found to be .66. He recommends that such tests be used in mental 
survey work for school children and adults, particularly in communi- 
ties containing a large foreign or illiterate element. 

In addition to the non-verbal tests which have already been dis- 
cussed, there are many others available. Among the more well- 
known scales are Myers' Mental Measure, Pressey's Primer Scale, 
Kingsbury's Primary Group Intelligence Tests, and Dearborn's 
Group Intelligence Tests. All these tests have been widely em- 
ployed, with varying degrees of success, by psychologists. 

The rapidity of the development of non-language tests has been 
phenomenal and indicates that it meets an important need. In the 
Binet-Simon Scale, there were only a few tests which required no 
language responses. Then followed the performance scales, devel- 
oped by Healy, Knox, Pintner and others, in which language re- 
sponses are completely eliminated. The Army Beta Examination, 
with its wide application among the millions of soldiers, demon- 
strated its practical value for intelligence measurement and for 
group use. Others have succeeded in advancing the non-verbal 
tests beyond the experimental stage. These tests are now applied 
to individuals and groups, both as an independent measure and as a 
supplement to language tests, with confidence that the results are 
trustworthy and fairly adequate. 

^ Pintner, R.: The Mental Survey. 



CHAPTER II 
THE EXPERIMENT 

A. PRELIMINARY PLAN 

In drafting a preliminary plan for the experiment it was first 
decided to devise a large number of tests and to tr\' them out on 
Chinese children in America. Since the purpose of the experiment 
was to develop a non-verbal intelligence scale for use in China, it 
appeared essential that the subjects be Chinese. Ten non-verbal 
tests were consequently constructed and mimeographed for trials. 
Fifty-one persons were examined with these tests, after which the 
examinations were discontinued as impracticable. The reasons for 
the disuse of the examinations were threefold: first, the tests were 
constructed by the subjective method instead of by the objective 
or scientific method; second, the tests were mimeographed instead 
of being printed, causing the test material to be in many instances 
indistinct and difficult of recognition; third, the scarcity of Chinese 
subjects, and the difficulty of dealing with the few which were 
available. Three months' time and much labor had been expended, 
and naturally the results were discouraging. An important fact, 
however, was revealed by these examinations; namely, the children 
of naturalized Chinese and of Chinese long resident in this country 
had been affected by their American environment and training, so 
that they were more American than Chinese. Tests which were 
applicable to American-Chinese children would be quite irrelevant 
if applied to children in China. As a result of these findings, the 
mimeographed tests were abandoned and thought was turned to the 
formulation of a new plan. 

A careful study was then made of all the available intelligence 
tests, especially the non-verbal forms. The new plan under con- 
sideration was to select the best elements in the American non-verbal 
tests and to attempt to develop them into a non-verbal scale for use 
in China. At the time (1920), there were available the following 
non-verbal and semi-non-verbal tests: 
I. Army Beta Examination 



The Experiment 13 

2. Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence, Series I 

3. Haggerty Intelligence Examination Delta 2 

4. Holley Picture Completion Test for Primary Grades 

5. Myers Mental Measure 

6. National Intelligence Tests 

7. Otis Group Intelligence Examination 

8. Pintner's Mental Survey Tests 

9. Pressey Primer Scale 
10. Trabue Mentimeters 

The question arose whether all of these tests, or whether any of 
them, could be used in the experiment. Before coming to a decision, 
it was necessary to formulate definitely the principles to be embodied 
in the proposed scale for use in China. After considerable study, the 
following principles were adopted as criteria: 

1. Tests should involve no language response^ from the subjects. 

2. Test materials should be drawn from social environment com- 
mon to all peoples. 

3. Test material should exclude, as much as possible, school 
training. 

4. Test material should be of interest to all types of subjects. 

5. Tests should be valid as a measure of intelligence. 

6. Tests should be reliable. 

7. Objective methods should be employed in both giving and 
scoring of tests. 

8. Tests should measure a wide range of intelligence. 

9. Tests should indicate mental growth. 

10. Tests should be adapted for group use. 

11. Time for testing and scoring should be reasonably short. 

12. Instructions for testing and scoring should be simplified for use 
by teachers and others who are not specialists in measurements. 

13. Tests should have alternative forms as a preventive against the 
vicious effect of coaching. 

14. Test material should be inexpensive, easy to handle, of small 
bulk, and easily kept in order. 

I . Tests should involve no language responses from the subject . 

General intelligence signifies a group of related inborn capacities 
for adapting one's self to specific situations in life. Inborn capaci- 



14 N on- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

ties, however, are never measured directly but are always inferred 
from the ability displayed. Language use is one of these abilities 
which ordinarily is a good index to intelligence, but it has its limi- 
tations. It cannot be employed, for instance, as a medium to 
measure intelligence when the language varies among the subjects 
under examination sufficiently to make understanding or executing 
the tasks difficult, slow, or impossible. Such a condition exists in 
China. The languages spoken in various sections differing widely, 
people from Peking do not understand the dialect of Canton, and 
the Shanghai dialect is different from that of Hankow. This diver- 
sity of dialects is not only characteristic of the provinces but exists 
in local districts of the same province. The written language, it is 
true, is identical throughout China, butcomparatively few can read, 
90 per cent of the Chinese people being illiterate. Under these 
conditions, a non-verbal test for use in China would have great 
superiority over any existing language test. 

2 . Test material should he drawn from social environment common to 
all peoples. 

It is a well-known fact that social environment affects the devel- 
opment of intelligence. Edison, born and raised in the wilds of 
Thibet, would doubtless never have developed into the particular 
kind of a mechanical genius he now is. To measure a Thibet-bom 
Edison by the standards used in examining an American-born 
Edison, would manifestly be inaccurate and unfair. The uncivilized 
Miaotze boy in Yunnan could not be expected to answer questions 
on automobiles or airplanes; and the New York boy, raised in the 
Bronx, could not be expected to answer intelligently questions on 
rice growing. There should be common grounds; the test material 
should be drawn from an experience common to all. Tests should 
measure capacity, and this can be accomplished by measuring only 
those traits possible of development by all subjects. Tests, based 
on such a principle, could be employed over all of China. 

3. Test material should exclude, as far as possible, school training. 
As ninety per cent of the Chinese people are illiterate, test 

material which requires school training must prove inadequate. 
Culture and school training are both acquired, not innate. They 
vary in different persons according to the environment to which 



The Experiment 15 

they have been subjected. The boy Ignorant of mathematics could 
not be expected to solve problems in algebra as well as the son of an 
instructor in mathematics. In order to compare the native ability 
of children, therefore, the products of school training should be 
excluded from the test material. 

4. Test material should he of interest to all types of subjects. 

Interest in the tests is essential to proper reaction; therefore, a 
good test should arouse interest in the subjects of widely differing 
mentality and type of intellect. Unless this is accomplished, the 
results of the test will not indicate the actual intelligence. Errors 
have been made in drawing conclusions as to the intelligence of the 
individuals in a group, when these individuals have had interests 
different from those called out by the test. For instance, a mechan- 
ical test given to a co-educational class usually results in a higher 
score for the boys than for the girls. The scores in this case do not 
prove that the boys are more intelligent than the girls; they prob- 
ably indicate rather the difference in degree of interest in the sub- 
ject between the boys and girls. It is, therefore, evident that the 
tests to be adequate must be of common interest to the entire group. 

5. Tests should he valid as a measure of intelligence. 

A test is valid when it actually measures the trait which It pro- 
fesses to measure. A valid test, therefore, implies actual, con- 
sistent measurement. Whether a test is valid or not is determined 
by the correlation of test scores and the elements of the intelligence, 
as objectively known by other means. The checks on validity most 
often used are school marks and progress, and estimates by teachers 
and associates. In applying this principle, the reliability of such 
checks should be investigated. 

6. Tests should he reliahle. 

Reliability in a test indicates the obtaining of similar results from 
two or more testings of the same subjects under the same conditions. 
Perfect reliability implies identical results from two or more testings 
under identical conditions, and is, therefore, never completely 
attained; but competent authorities agree that the coefficient of 
reliability should be .90 or higher for a group of equal age. 



1 6 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

7. Objective methods should be employed in both giving and scoring 
of tests. 

Objectivity is attained when the methods and procedure of testing 
and scoring are uniform and independent of personal opinion so that 
the results may be verified by other testers. That is to say, methods 
of testing and scoring should be identical at all times for all testers. 
The personal equation of the teacher should be eliminated as far as 
possible. The results of the testing should endure verification in 
all cases where the same tests are applied to the same subjects, 
using the same methods under similar conditions. 

8. Tests should measure a wide range of inteUigence . 

The term "general intelligence" means the combination of many 
mental traits. It varies in amount in individuals from practically 
zero in the lowest grade of idiots to that large quantity, at present 
unmeasured, of the world's greatest genius. Its distribution, 
according to the best available estimates, approximates a bell- 
shaped curA-e: that is to say, there are few of genius level, a large 
number of ordinar\^ or average people, and comparatively few 
idiots. An intelligence test, to be entirely satisfactory-, should be 
easy enough for all except the hopeless idiots to make some score 
and sufificiently difficult for a person of great genius not to make a 
perfect score. On the other hand, the scores should be distributed 
continuously and around one mode. Furthermore, the tests should 
measure a large number of unlike or differentiating traits. The 
ideal' way would be to measure everv' trait that contributes to intel- 
ligence and to give each trait a weighting proportional to its con- 
tribution to the total intelligence. This is impossible in our present 
state of knowledge, but an intelligence test should measure as many 
differentiating traits as possible. 

9. Tests shotdd indicate mental growth. 

Intelligence develops along with the advance of chronological age 
up to a point believed to be somewhere near the end of the adolescent 
period. As the child grows older, his native endowment unfolds. 
So a normal ten-year-old child should be able to do more than the 
eight-year-old child and a normal eight-year-old child should know 
more than a six-year-old child. The intelligence test should reveal 
the different stages of development by improved scores with each 



The Experiment < .17 

increase in chronological age. This mental index is known as mental 
age. The mental age divided by the chronological age gives what 
is known as the intelligence quotient. 

ID. Tests should he adapted for group use. 

Group testing enables the examiner to test many persons at a 
time and therefore makes possible the testing of many more children 
with the same expenditure of time, labor and money, than can be 
achieved by testing them singly. The success of the group- testing 
method was shown in the United States Army during the war. To 
test two million soldiers individually in so short a time was totally 
impossible, but by means of group tests the men were speedily sorted 
and classified. Group testing may not give such an accurate diag- 
nosis as does individual testing, but it is generally satisfactory and 
can be supplemented by individual tests in exceptional cases. For 
general use in China, the tests must be adapted for group use. 

11. Time for testing and scoring should he reasonahly short. 

Time for testing should be long enough for the average subject 
to give response without hurry, but it should be reasonably short 
so as not to cause fatigue in the subjects nor to entail such adminis- 
trative inconvenience as to prevent its use. If two scales, for in- 
stance, give the same result, and one takes thirty minutes to give, 
while the other takes two hours, the former is certainly preferable 
to the latter. As to scoring, the test should be constructed so that it 
may be accurately, uniformly, and rapidly scored with little depend- 
ence upon the judgment of the persons doing it. Mechanical scor- 
ing devices should be employed whenever advisable. 

12. Instructions for testing and scoring should he simplified for use 
hy teachers and others who are not specialists in measurement. 

There are not many psychologists in China. Most of the measure- 
ment work probably will be done by the ambitious teachers and 
others who are not specialists in measurements. To facilitate the 
work, it is absolutely necessary that the instructions for both testing 
and scoring should be simplified so that they can be followed easily. 
The instructions should be clear, concise, and adequate, but must 
be brief, consistent, and uniform for all who are to be testers. 



l8 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

Whenever possible, instructions should employ a preliminary dem- 
onstration test in order that the subjects may understand clearly 
what they are expected to do. 

13. Tests should have alternative forms as a preventive against the 
vicious effect of coaching. 

The one- form scale has at least two defects. First, if the tests 
are to be used as a basis for promotion in education or business, 
ambitious parents will be likely to purchase the material and coach 
their children with the object of increasing their scores. Second, 
the one-form scale cannot be used in retesting for a study of mental 
growth. Therefore, alternative forms should be prepared. They 
should have the same value, however, as the original form, and 
measure the same traits. 

14. Test material should he inexpensive, easy to handle, of small hulk 
and easily kept in order. 

As communication is inconvenient in some parts of China and the 
merit of intelligence measurement is not as yet widely demonstrated 
there, it is important that ever>^ advantage be taken to facilitate the 
use of the tests. They should, therefore, be easy to handle; they should 
not be bulky nor contain apparatus which is difficult to keep in 
order; and the cost of the test material should be small. 

B. TESTS USED IN THE PRESENT EXPERIMENT 

In consideration of the above adopted principles, a selection was 
made from the ten non-verbal tests listed on pages 12 and 13 of the 
following tests, to be used in the experiment: 

1 . Myers Mental Measure 

2. Pintner's Non-language Tests 

3. Pressey Primer Scale 

4. Army Beta Examination 

5. Dearborn Group Examination, Series I 

General Examination I 
General Examination 2 
General Examination 3 

A brief description of each of these tests follows: 
I. Myers Mental Measure.^ 

^ School and Society, Vol. lo, pp. 353-60 {igig). 



The Experiment 19 

The Myers Mental Measure was devised by Carolyne E. Myers 
and Garry C. Myers for school use, the Measure being based upon 
the Army Beta tests. Mr. and Mrs. Myers were interested in the 
classification of children as early as possible on the basis of intelli- 
gence in order that children of marked ability might be selected for 
rapid advancement, and that those of very low grade intelligence 
might early be segregated. To do this, they devised a scale, uni- 
versal in nature, with the hope that it could be applied to school 
children of all ages and given in 15 or 20 minutes to a large number 
of individuals. 

The scale consists of four tests, all of which are pictures. The first 
test is called a directions test. It requires the child to obey certain 
directions, such as to draw a line or make a mark in a particular way. 
It furthermore needs no preliminary demonstration other than a 
brief pantomime with very little spoken instruction. The second 
test is a picture-completion test consisting of pictures of familiar 
objects or situations, with one important element missing which 
the subject must supply. The third is a learning test which requires 
the subject to make substitution of proper symbols for other sym- 
bols, while the fourth is a common element test in which the subject 
is asked to mark the pictures which are similar in some way. 

Mr. and Mrs. Myers used the Stanford-Binet Scale as a check 
upon their own scale. Omitting test 3, which gives practically 
zero correlation, the total of tests i, 2 and 4 correlates about .80 
with Stanford-Binet. 

2. Pintners Non-Language Tests} 

Pintner's Non-Language Tests were devised by Professor Rudolph 
Pintner with the purpose of measuring the general intelligence of 
the deaf, illiterate, and non-English speaking. A knowledge of 
English is not needed either to understand the directions or to make 
responses. The scale consists of six tests which have been arranged 
for group testing, suitable for children and for adults. The first is 
the imitation test which is essentially the same as the Knox Test. 
The second and third are "easy learning" and ''hard learning" tests 
respectively. The task in the next one is a ''drawing completion" 
test, which is an abbreviated form of the larger drawing test devised 

^ Pintner, R.: "A Non-language Group Intelligence Test," Journal of Applied 
Psychology, Vol. ill, No. 3 (September, 1919). 



20 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

by the same author. The fifth is the "reversed-drawing" test, 
which requires the subject to draw the reversal, or counterpart of a 
drawing given. The last test is "picture-reconstruction," involving 
the rearranging of picture sections with the object of completing the 
entire picture. All the correlations between each test and the total 
score were found positive and fairly high; and the correlation be- 
tween the I Q on the Stanford-Binet and the percentile rank on the 
Pintner's Non-Language Tests was .66. 

3. Pressey Primer Scale} 

Pressey Primer Scale is known as the "crossing-out" test. As 
the authors describe, "each test asks of the subject that by crossing 
out some one thing, he eliminate a wrong, irrelevant, or extreme 
element in a situation." The scale was devised for the use of the 
first three grades. In the first test, the subjects are required to 
cross out an unnecessary dot in each of several groups of dots. The 
second involves the crossing out of the most discordant, or dis- 
similar object from a group of three objects; the third, for the 
crossing out of the superfluous block in each square, after the other 
blocks have been fitted into four patterns at the top of the page; and 
the fourth test provides for the crossing out, in each picture, of the 
absurd part. 

4. Army Beta Examination} 

The Beta Examination was introduced primarily for the group 
testing in the Army during the World War of those illiterate in 
English. Instructions were given in the form of four demonstrations 
at the beginning of each test w^ith gestures and pantomimes. The 
original or trial series consisted of fifteen tests, but after an extensive 
trial, seven tests were finally retained. These tests are known as 
maze, cube analysis, X-0 series, digit-symbol, number checking, 
pictorial completion, and geometric construction. The maze test, 
devised by C. R. Brown, was retained from the preliminary trials 
because it could be successfully demonstrated, gives few zero scores 
and correlates fairly well with the total scores of army Alpha and 

^ Pressey, S. L. and Pressey, L. W.: "Cross-out Tests,'" Journal of Applied Psy- 
chology, Vol. Ill (1919) , pp. 143-150. 

* See Yerkes and Yoakum, Army Mental Tests; also Memoirs of the National Academy 
of Science, Vol. x\\ 



The Experiment 2 1 

Beta. The cube analysis test was originally devised by Edwards at 
Camp Lee, to take the place of the usual form of test for arithmetical 
reasoning. Test 3 (X-0 series) was an attempt to provide the 
equivalent of test 8 of Alpha. It proved to be an easy and effective 
way to indicate the institutional feeble-minded group. The digit- 
symbol test was modeled after the well-known substitution test 
which had been used in various forms by Woodworth, Pintner, 
Whipple, and others. Number checking was devised by Thorn- 
dike, and found satisfactory on all counts. The pictorial com- 
pletion test was devised by Kelley and patterned originally after 
the Binet mutilated pictures. The last test, geometrical construc- 
tion, was patterned after the various form-board tests. It was 
found particularly good in picking out the higher levels of ability. 
The product-moment coefficient of correlation between the Beta 
Examination weighted score and Stanford-Binet mental age was 
reported to be .731 ± .012. 

5. The Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence , Series 1} 

The Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence, Series I, were devised 
and standardized by Professor W. F. Dearborn, of Harvard. They 
are not linguistic, and consist of three parts (known as General 
Examinations 1,2, and 3) for use in the first three grades. General 
Examination I contains a "directions test," a ''clock test" and a 
"circus" test. General Examination 2 consists of seven "games" 
which, in order, are "color blocks," "substitution," "ladders," 
"picturemaking," "picture recognition," and "dominoes." General 
Examination 3 consists of "picture completion," "map of town," 
"ruler," and "number form puzzles." A correlation of .87 of the 
Stanford-Binet Scale with Dearborn tests has been reported. ^ 

C. METHOD OF PROCEDURE 

The present testing was carried on in Public School No. 108, sit- 
uated in the section of New York City which is populated and in- 
habited by immigrants. This school has only the kindergarten and 
the first four grades. Each grade is divided into two sections, so there 
are altogether nine sections in the school. During the fall of 1920 

^ Dearborn, W. F.: The Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence. 
^Journal of Educational Research, Vol. hi, No. 4, p. 308 (April, 1921). 



22 X 071- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

when the experiment was started, the enrollment was about i.ooo. 
After a preliminan- trial, it was found impossible to test all the 
pupils, as those who were in the kindergarten and the first grade 
could not follow the directions of the tests satisfactorily. They 
were eliminated from the testing and only the children from grades 
2B to 4B were tested. In these grades, there were 185 boys 
and 216 girls, a total of 401. The distribution of the children 
according to nationahties was as follows: 

X.A.TIOXALITY XvMEER Per Cen-j 

Italian 362 90 27 

Chinese 21 5-24 

Jev-4sh 14 3.49 

Jewish-Italian 2 .50 

Chinese-Jewish i .25 

Spanish-Italian i 25 

Only a few of these children were Chinese; more than 90 per cent 
were Italians. However, since the purpose of the experiment was 
to select the best non-verbal tests, and since special forms for use in 
China would have to be made later and no norms were expected to 
result from the testing, the nativity of the subjects was wholly 
immaterial. Prior to this experiment, the school had never used 
any standardized psychological or educational tests. The principal 
and the teachers were all deeply interested in the experiment and 
offered ever>- possible assistance to make it a success. The writer 
took advantage of this unusually excellent opportunity to visit the 
school frequently and make friends with both teachers and pupils. 
In consequence, when he was ready to test the children, although 
a foreigner, he was no longer a stranger to the school population. 

All the testing was done in a large classroom equipped with desks, 
blackboard and comfortable chairs. Twenty-eight pupils were 
brought to this room, to be tested, at one time. The pupils were 
seated apart from each other, so the possibility of copying was 
reduced. 

Before giving a test to the children, the writer familiarized himself 
with the instructions by tr>'ing them with other children. All the 
examinations were conducted by the writer himself with the assist- 
ance of the principal. Miss Rae. and a college trained teacher. 
Pains were taken to maintain uniformity both of the procedure in 



No. 


I 


Nov 


No. 


2 


Dec. 


No. 


3 


Dec. 


No. 


4 


Dec. 


No. 


5 


Jan. 



The Experiment 23 

the testing and the environment in the room. The order at testing 
was always from the younger ones, then to the older ones; that is, 
from Grade 2B to 4B. The testing time was from 10 a. m. to 12 m. 
and from i p. m. to 3 p. m. Every effort was made to make the test- 
ing informal and pleasant yet stimulating and searching. 
The scales were given on the following dates: 

24-26, 1920 — Myers Mental Measure 
4-6, 1920 — Pintner's Non-language Tests 
14-16, 1920 — Pressey Primer Scale 
20-22, 1920 — Army Beta Examination 
4-8, 1 92 1 — Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence 

In giving the scales, all the original directions were followed liter- 
ally, except in the cases of the Dearborn Group Tests of Intelli- 
gence and the Army Beta Examination, both of which were modi- 
fied to meet the peculiar needs. The altering of directions for the 
Dearborn Tests of Intelligence was very slight. The only change 
made was in the "clock" test of General Examination i. The 
original direction calls for the subjects to draw in the clock hands, 
indicating the time when school begins in the morning, when school 
begins in the afternoon, and when school closed in the afternoon. 
In the school where the testing was done, starting and closing time 
is different for different children. As it was therefore confusing for 
the children to answer these questions, the following directions were 
substituted: ''In the first clock draw in the hands so as to show what 
time school assembly begins in the morning. Drav/ the hands in 
the next clock, to show what time school recess begins for lunch. 
In the third clock show what time school begins in the afternoon." 
As suggested by Dearborn, the tests were given in two periods, but 
with one day interval between them. 

In the case of the Army Beta Examination, the procedure was 
considerably modified. The original directions call for a blackboard 
frame consisting of eight fitted sections, a blackboard chart in a 
continuous roll 27 feet long, cardboard pieces for Test 7, and pat- 
terns for constructing Test 2. It was impossible to get the original 
apparatus, so the school blackboard, self-made cardboard pieces, 
and real wood cubes were substituted. Furthermore, according to 
the original form, it was necessary to have an examiner, a demon- 



24 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

strator, and a number of orderlies. The demonstrator was charged 
with the single task of doing before the group just what the group 
was later to do with the examination blanks. The use of a special 
demonstrator, as provided for in the original tests, was considered 
both superfluous and cumbersome. The examiner also performed 
the duty of the demonstrator. As in other scales, he was to give the 
directions as well as demonstrate to the class the preliminary test. 
The adapted directions were as follows: 

Directions for Test i 

As soon as the pupils have been propedy seated, and examination blanks dis- 
tributed, the examiner says, "Here are some papers. You must not open them 
or turn them over until you are told to." 

Holding up the Beta blank, the examiner continues: "In the place where it 
says name, print your name very clearly. Remember, print your full name. 
If you are Mary Jones, print Mary Jones; if you are John Smith, print John Smith. 
Right after your name, in the place where it says rank, write your grade. Do 
you know in which grade you are? That is fine. Write down your grade very 
clearly, so that I can read it. Look over your paper again and show me whether 
all of you have written your name and grade very clearly." 

Before the examination begins, each paper should be inspected by the assistants 
in order to make sure that the name and grade are clearly written. Then the 
Examiner remarks, '*i\ttention! Watch what I do on the blackboard. I am 
going to do here what you are going to do on your papers. Ask no questions. 
Wait till I say, 'Go ahead,' Now is everybody ready? Turn your paper over. 
This is Test i, here (pointing to the page of record blank). Have you found it?" 
After all have found the page, the Examiner continues, "Don't make any marks 
till I say 'Go ahead.' What I want you to do is to draw a line which shall pass 
through the pictures from left to right without touching any line. Now watch 
me work on the blackboard." After touching both arrows, the Examiner traces 
through the first maze with chalk, slowly and purposely makes one mistake by 
going into the blind alley at upper left-hand corner of the maze and asks the class, 
"Is this correct?" After the class answers "No," the examiner places his hand 
back to the place where he may start right again, and traces through the rest 
of the maze, indicating an attempt at haste and hesitating only at ambiguous 
points. After this is done, he says, "Ever^^body ready! All right. Go ahead. 
Hurry up." At the end of two minutes, the examiner says, "Stop! Turn over 
the page to Test 2." 

Test 2 

The examiner then continues, "This is Test 2 here. Look!" After ever>'cme 
has found the page he says, "I want you to count the cubes and write the number 
in the little square below the picture. Now watch me work on these blocks." 
The order of procedure is as follows: 



The Experiment 25 

a The examiner points to the three-cube model on the blackboard, making 
a rotary movement of the pointer to embrace the entire picture. 

b With similar motion he points to the three-cube wood model on the desk. 

c The examiner next points to picture on blackboard and asks the class, "How 
much?" 

d The examiner turns to cube model and counts aloud, putting up the fingers 
while so doing, and encouraging the class to count with him. 

e The examiner taps each cube on the blackboard and asks the class, "How 
much?" 

/ After the class answers correctly, the examiner counts the cubes on black- 
board silently and writes proper figures in proper places. (The rest is the same 
as the original directions). 

After the demonstration is completed, the examiner says, "Everybody ready! 
All right. Go ahead. Hurry up," and at the end of 2}4 minutes he says, 
"Stop! Look at me and don't turn the page." 

Test 3, x-o Series 

"This is Test 3 here. Look." After everyone has found the page, he says, 
"I want you to draw in X or O in the proper squares which are empty. Now 
watch me work on the blackboard." The examiner first points to the blank 
rectangles at the end, then traces each "O" in chart, then traces outline of "O's" 
in remaining spaces and draws them in. Then he traces first "X" in next sample, 
moves to next "X" by tracing the arc of an imaginary semicircle joining the two, 
and in the same manner traces each "X," moving an arc to the next. He then 
traces outlines of "X's" in the proper blank spaces, moving over imaginary arc 
in each case, and asks the class what should be drawn in. The examiner follows 
the answers of the class and fills in remaining problems very slowly. After the 
demonstration is finished, the examiner says, "All right. Go ahead. Hurry 
up!" At the end oi 1% minutes he says, "Stop! Turn the page to Test 4." 

Test 4. Digit-Symbol 

"This is Test 4 here. Look." After everyone has found the paper — "I want 
you to study each number and memorize the symbol which represents it. Put 
in the right symbol under the right number." The examiner touches the number 
in first sample with index finger of right hand; holding finger there, finds with 
index finger of left hand the corresponding number in key; drops index finger of 
left hand to symbol for the number found; holding left hand in this position 
writes appropriate symbol in the lower half of the sample. Similar with the other 
sample. But for the last three samples the class is asked to give the correct 
symbols. At end of the demonstration, the examiner says, "All right. Go 
ahead. Hurry up!" At the end of 2 minutes the examiner says, "Stop! But 
don't turn the page." 

Test 5. Number Checking 
"This is Test 5 here. Look." After everyone has found the page — "I want 



26 Xon-Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

you to find out whether the two numbers are the same. If they are the same, 
write *X' on the dotted line between them; if they are not the same, write 'O' 
on the dotted line between them. Now watch me do this on the blackboard." 
In this demonstration the examiner must get "Yes" or "Xo" responses from the 
class. If the wrong response is volunteered by the group, the examiner points 
to digits again and gives right response, "Yes" or "Xo" as the case may be. 
The examiner points to the first digit of first number in left column, then to second 
digit first number in left column and second first number in right column. He 
says "Yes" to the class and marks an "X" on the dotted line between the number. 
The examiner does the same for the second line of figures, but here he indicates 
by "O." In the last three samples, the class is asked to answer "Yes" or "Xo." 
After the demonstration is over, the examiner points to page and says, "All 
right. Go ahead. Hurr\'' up!" At the end of 3 minutes, he says, "StopI 
Turn over the page to Test 6." 

Test 6. Pictorial CoiiPLETiON 

"This is Test 6 here. Look! A lot of pictures." After ever\-one has found 
the page — "Ever\' picture has something gone. I want you to fix it. Xow look 
at the pictures on the blackboard." The examiner points to the picture of the 
hand, then to the place where the finger is missing and asks the class, "WTiat is 
gone?" After the class has given a correct answer, he says, "That's right. 
The finger is gone." Then he draws in the finger. Similarly with the other 
samples. Wlien the demonstration is finished, the examiner says, "Fix all the 
pictures on the whole page. All right. Go ahead. Hurr>- upl" At the end of 
3 minutes, the examiner says, "StopI but don't turn over the page." 

Test 7. GsoMETiacAL Construction 

"This is Test 7 here. Look." After ever\-one has found the page — "Here 
are blocks. Imagine that you could fill them in this square, and then draw in the 
intersecting lines in this square. X'ow watch me." The examiner points to 
the first figure on blackboard. He then takes the two pieces of cardboard, fits 
them on the similar dra'tting on blackboard to show that they correspond and puts 
them together on the square on blackboard to show that they fill it. Then, after 
running his finger over the line of intersections of the parts, he removes the pieces 
and solution in the square on the blackboard. Similarly for the other samples. 
At the end of the demonstration, the examiner holds up the blanks, points to each 
square on the page and sa\-s, "All right. Go ahead. Hurr\- up!" At the end of 
2yi minutes he sa>-3, "Ever\-body stop!" Papers are then collected by monitors 
immediateh- . 

Wliile the children were doing the tests, a general impression of 
their attitude was recorded. As a whole they showed tine spirit, 
worked enthusiastically, and seemed to enjoy the work. Judged by 
their manner, they seemed especially interested in the Pressey 



The Experiment 27 

Absurdity Test and in all the Pictorial Completion Tests. But in 
the case of the Dearborn Tests, the majority of the children were 
bewildered by lack of clearness in the directions and showed signs 
of fatigue due to the over-long time required. 

Practically all the tests were scored by the writer himself, with 
great care. The Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence were found 
to be the most difficult to score. It took on an average of fifteen 
minutes to score a child's paper containing the three examinations. 
The amount of time required in scoring the Dearborn Tests seemed 
greatly out of proportion to the results obtained. 



CHAPTER III 
FORMATION OF A CRITERION 

The chief object of the present study is to select the best group 
of tests from the jfive inteUigence examinations which were given 
to the children in New York City Public School No. io8, with the 
view to modify them for use in China. In order to do so, it is 
necessary to have a definite, constant criterion with which to com- 
pare tests. This criterion should be made up from as many factors 
as possible that are known to be indices of the constituents and 
development of general intelligence. These factors must be reliable 
indicators if the criterion, which is depended upon to determine 
the value of the selected tests, is to be trustworthy. In this chapter. 
an account of the selection of the best elements to be included in the 
criterion with which to compare the tests is given. 

The elements of the criterion adopted are: (i) age, (2) school 
marks, (3) school progress, (4) teachers' estimates of intelligence, 
and (5) composite test scores of (a) Dearborn Group Tests of 
InteUigence, (b) Pintner Non-language Tests, (c) Army Beta 
Examination, (d) Myers Mental Measure, (e) and Pressey Primer 
Scale. Certain weights, to be described later, are given for age, 
school marks, school progress, and teachers' estimates of intelligence; 
and to each of the mental test scores, and the total combined into 
one rating called Final Criterion. 

A. ELEMENTS OF THE CRITERION 

The elements which may be included conveniently in a criterion 
for pupils' intelligence are age, teachers' estimates, school marks, 
school progress and test scores. All of these measure general intel- 
ligence in different ways, though their values are not equal. Some 
or all of them should be used in combination and given weight in 
reference to their special significance in showing the presence of 
intellectual ability. 



Formation of a Criterion 29 

I. Chronological Age. 

The chronological ages of the children were copied directly from 
the school record, in order that they might be accurately known. 
As the administering of the intelligence scales extended from 
November 24, 1920, to January 8, 1921, the median date was 
taken as a standard to calculate the ages, that is, December 17, 
1920. All the ages, therefore, shown on the record book date from 
the birth of the individual up to December 17, 1920. 

The dependence of intelligence upon age in adults is a theoretical 
problem, but gradual mental growth in children is accepted by all 
psychologists as beyond dispute. Binet, Terman, Thorndike, and 
others have all found that the general intelligence of a child gradu- 
ally develops as his age advances until he reaches maturity. Kelley ^ 
and Fretwell,^ according to their experimental studies, find that 
there is a negative correlation between achievement — an indication 
that with pupils in the same grade the younger are the brighter 
ones. Since all the subjects in this study are below fifteen years of 
age, it is evident that age should be considered in the making of the 
criterion for the selection of the tests, but that the young child in an 
advanced grade should be given a bonus, and the older child in the 
early grade a demerit in utilizing age as a criterion of intelligence. 
Therefore an age distribution table was prepared and a numerical 
value was assigned to different ages in different sections of the 
grades. As the ages for the sexes were different, so the values 
assigned were also different. For instance, in section B of the 
second grade boys, 9 was assigned to 7 yrs. 6 mo.; 8 to 8 years; 
7 to 8 yrs. 6 mo; 6 to 9 years; 5 to 9 yrs. 6 mo.; 4 to 10 years; 
and 3 to above 10 years. For a complete record, see Table I. 

2. Teachers' Estimates. 

A teacher associates with children daily. She knows in a general 
way a pupil's strong points as well as his weak ones. Her estimate 
of his general intelligence should be accurate in some particulars 
if she clearly understood that her rating was to be based upon native 
intelligence and not school achievement. Fretwell found that the 
correlation of the composite of teachers' judgments of pupils with 
the composite of eleven tests was .66. Kelley found that "the cor- 

^ Kelley, T. L.: Educational Guidance. 

' Fretwell, E. K.: A Study in Educational Prognosis. 



30 



Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 



TABLE I 
Distribution of Ages and the Numerical Value Assigned to Each Age 

BOYS 



Grade 1 

1 


2B 


3A 1 

1 


3B 


4^^ 


4B 


Age ^ 


0. Value Is 


0. Value ^ 


[0. Value 


No. 


Value 


No. 


Value 


Yr. Mo, 
















7.0 


10 


II 


12 




13 




14 


7-6 


2 9 


10 


II 




12 




13 


8.0 ] 


[7 8 ] 


[3 9 


10 


I 


II 




12 


8.6 


3 7 


9 8 


9 




10 




II 


9.0 


5 6 ] 


[6 7 ^ 


JO 8 


8 


9 


2 


10 


9.6 


2 5 


2 6 


7 7 


I 


8 




9 


10. 


2 4 


6 5 


6 6 


15 


7 


13 


8 


10.6 


3 


4 


I 5 


I 


6 


5 


7 


II. 


2 3 


I 3 


3 4 


4 


5 


7 


6 


II. 6 


3 


3 


3 




4 


2 


5 


12.0 






3 


3 


2 


3 


5 


4 


12.6 








3 




3 




3 


13.0 


. 






. 




3 




3 


13-6 
















3 


14.0 


. 














3 


14.6 
















3 


150 
















3 



GIRLS 



Grade 


2 


B 


3^ 


\ 


3B 


4- 


\ 


4B 


Age 


No. 


Value 


No. 


Value 


No. 


Value 


No. 


Value 


No. 


\'alue 


Yr. Mo. 






















7.0 




10 




II 




12 




13 




14 


7.6 




9 


I 


10 




II 




12 




13 


8.0 


30 


8 


10 


9 


5 


10 




II 




12 


8.6 


I 


7 


■ 7 


8 


4 


9 




10 


. . 


II 


9.0 


17 


6 


18 


7 


15 


8 


II 


9 


3 


10 


9.6 


2 


5 


2 


6 


4 


7 


10 


8 


2 


9 


10. 


2 


4 


6 


5 


6 


6 


18 


7 


19 


8 


10.6 




3 




4 


6 


5 


3 


6 


3 


7 


II. 








3 


I 


4 


2 


5 


9 


6 


II. 6 




■ 






I 


3 




4 




5 


12.0 










I 


3 




3 


3 


4 


12.6 












3 


I 


3 




3 


13.0 












I 


3 


± 


3 



Formation of a Criterion 31 

relation between class standing and the regression equation com- 
bination of the estimates of traits by teachers" was .76. He re- 
marked, as a result of his investigation, "With such a high correla- 
tion, a division of pupils into classes by means of teachers' estimates 
would be highly reliable." ^ Teachers' estimates are not enough, 
however, because a teacher may overemphasize some factors and 
neglect others. Terman found that teachers frequently err in 
estimating general intelligence because they neglect to consider 
age and emotional differences. Whipple found that teachers 
estimate the dull children too high and the bright children too low. 

In this study, teachers were requested to separate their children 
into five classes A, B, C, D, and E on the assumption that "Intel- 
ligence is a general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust 
his thinking to new requirements: it is general mental adaptability 
to new problems and conditions of life."^ They w^ere asked to rate 
few as A's or E's, comparatively more as B and D, and a larger 
number as C. The teachers were warned not to grade the intel- 
ligence of their children by their school achievement and deport- 
ment but by their general abilities or brightness shown both in their 
academic work and extra-curricular activities. In order to be fair 
to the children, the teachers were requested to grade their children 
independently three times, November 24, 1920, December 16, 
1920, and January 11, 1921. The dates were sufficiently far apart 
so that the teachers scarcely remembered their previous marks. An 
aggregate of the three estimates was taken as the estimate of the 
teacher for the general intelligence of the child. 

In order to make possible statistical treatment, the letters A, 
B, C, D and E, given by the teachers, were transmuted into 
numerals. They are shown as follows: 

Teachers' Estimate Numerical Value Assigned 

A 4 

B 3 

C 2 

D I 

E o 

^ Kelley, T. L.: Educational Guidance, p. i6. 

2 Stern, W.: "The Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence," translated by 
G. M. Whipple, Educational Psychology Monographs, No. 13, p. 3. 



32 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

3. School Marks. 

School marks have been the most universal method used for 
grading pupils. In the past, it has been the only method of judging 
the ability of the children recorded in school reports. While it is 
true that teachers often do not agree with each other, yet school 
marks are a fair measure of mental ability. Fretwell found the cor- 
relation between school marks and a group of tests as high as .57.^ 
McCall says, "Teachers' marks are important because they are 
now and will continue for some time to be the most universal method 
of rating pupils. In fact, they may continue forever to be the 
criterion for classification because teachers will soon be familiar 
with the simple mysteries of scientific measurement." ^ 

In the school in which this experiment was carried on, there were 
weekly, monthly, and term examinations. The teachers mark the 
children by letters. The marks used in this study are the average 
school marks of the children in the fall term of 1920-21. For the 
convenience of statistical study, the school marks were turned into 
figures as follows: 

School Marks Numerical \'alx7e Assignted 

A 10 

B 8 

C 7 

D 5 

E 3 

4. School Progress. 

By school progress is meant the progress which a child has made 
in the school, that is, his present class standing. The very reason 
that one could be promoted to a certain grade and maintain his 
standing there shows that he must have the mental ability to handle 
the subjects. When a pupil fails to make satisfactory progress in his 
school work, he is ordinarily retarded or eliminated. It is clear, there- 
fore, that advance in grade usually indicates development of intelli- 
gence, although there may be exceptions. Sometimes the school per- 
mits a pupil to move up a grade or class even though he has not done 
the work below, because the parents of the child insist upon it; or 
because the teacher wants to get rid of the backward child; or 

1 Fretwell, E. K.: A Study in Educational Prognosis, p. 17. 
' McCall. W. A.: How to Measure in Education. 



Formation of a Criterion 33 

because the school must make room for younger pupils. However, 
the majority of the pupils are promoted because their mental 
ability permits the expected scholastic attainment, and therefore 
the grade reached should be utilized in building up the criterion for 
the selection of tests. 

In Public School No. 108, classes are divided into A and B sec- 
tions, and pupils are promoted by sections twice a year, A being the 
lower section . The following numerical values were assigned to the 
different sections of the different grades: 

School Progress Numerical Value Assigned 

Grade IIB o 

Grade IIIA 5 

Grade IIIB 10 

Grade IVA 15 

Grade IVB 20 

5. Test Scores. 

All tests given are standardized. They all are claimed to correlate 
highly with general intelligence. The correlation between Myers 
Mental Measure and Stanford-Binet Scale was reported to be .80; 
between Pressey Primer Scale and Stanford-Binet Scale, .60; 
between the Army Beta Examination and Stanford-Binet Scale, 
.73; and between Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence and Stan- 
ford-Binet Scale, .87. It is safe to assume that if the individual 
scales are so valid as a measure of intelligence, a combination of the 
test scores of all these scales would result in an excellent measure- 
ment of general intelligence. Based upon this assumption, the com- 
bined test scores were included in the final criterion. 

B. TEST SCORES WEIGHTING 

In order to study the combined value of all the scales given to 
the children, it was necessary to have a composite of all the test 
scores. This could be done by summing all the raw test scores of 
the different scales. But the merits and variabilities of the scores 
of the different scales are different. To sum the raw scores is, 
therefore, unfair. The problem then to be next considered was how 
to weight the different scales properly. 

It was important to know the merits of the different scales, when 
a weight was attached to each. One of the simplest methods for 



34 Xoji-VerhaJ Ititelligefice Tests for Use in China 

finding them was to prepare an age or grade distribution table and 
inspect the slope shown. This was based on the assumption that a 
child, as he advanced in age and grade, should make a higher score 
in an intelHgence test. This gradual increase of scores in propor- 
tion to the advance in age and grade permits the appearance of a 
slope on the distribution table. When scores for a given age are 
near together and on the whole greater for each increased age, which 
is shown graphically by their clustering about the slope line, the 
more valuable is the scale. 

Based on the above assumption, age and grade distribution tables 
of each scale were prepared for both sexes. An inspection of the 
tables shows the existence of some slope in all the scales; Pintner 
Xon-language Tests, Army Beta Examination, and Dearborn Group 
Test, however, seemed better than the rest. All of the tables could 
not be shown here, but for illustration, the distribution of Pintner's 
Xon-language Tests is given in Table II. Attention is called to the 
slope and the gradual increase of scores as expressed by the medians, 
from 50.83 for age 8 to 106.5 for age 11. 

Another rough method for finding the merits of the different scales 
is to compute the extent of overlapping of the two groups of scores. 
The assumption is this: the less overlapping in different grades the 
tests show the better measures of intelHgence they are. For instance 
a good scale should show the differences in mental traits between 
the child in Grade III and the child in Grade IV. The more the scale 
can indicate the difference, the more reliable the scale. Such over- 
lapping can be computed by comparing the tvs^o total distributions 
of the test scores by stating the variabilities of the two groups and 
their central tendencies. The method used in this study, however, 
is a shortened one, based on the following formula:^ 



^ , . r 4 -n ^ (No. of cases) > median m 5 

Per cent overlappmg of A over J3 = '■ 

N A 



To illustrate the method, the data in Table III are taken. In 
this case A in the formula means Grade III and B Grade IV. The 
median for Grade IV is 67.5, which falls midway in the step 65-70. 

^ See Thorndike, E. L.: Mental and Social Measurements, p. 128 ff. 



Formation of a Criterion 
TABLE II 



35 



Age Distribution Showing the Slope and the Increase of Scores as Age 
Advances; Data from Boys Who Have Taken the Pintner Non- 
Language Tests 



Age 



Score 

130-135 . . . . 

125-130 . . . . 

120-125 . . . . 

115-120 . . . . 

110-115 . . . . 

105-110 . . . . 

100-105 . . . . 

95-100 . . . . 

90- 95 . . • • 

85- 90 ... . 

80- 85 ... . 

75- 80 ... . 

70- 75 ... . 

65- 70 ... . 

60- 65 ... . 

55- 60 ... . 

50- 55 ... . 

45- 50 ... . 

40- 45 ... . 

35- 40 ... . 

30- 35 ... . 

25- 30 ... . 

20- 25 ... . 

15- 20 ... . 

10- 15 ... . 

5- 10 ... . 

o- 5 . . . . 

Number of Cases 

Median . . . . 

Quartile . . . . 



/ 

// 

// 

/ 

// 

// 

//// 

/// 

// 

/ 

/// 

// 

/// 

// 

// 

/ 

/ 



//// 

/ 

//// 

// 

/ 

//// 

///// 

///// 

//// 

/// 

///// 

// 

/// 

/// 

/ 

/// 

/// 

// 

/ 

// 

/ 



10 



// 

// 

// 

/ 

//// 

/// 

/ 

///// 

// 

// 

//// 

// 

/ 

/// 

/ 

/ 



/ 

// 
/ 

/// 
/ 



/ 
/ 

/// 



14 



15 



35 



60 



37 



15 



50.83 



66.25 



81.50 



106.5 



10.50 



17.10 



13.45 



16.25 



36 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

TABLE III 
Grade Distributions of the Pressey Scale 





Score 


Grade III 


Grade IV 




85-90 


.. 


9 




80-85 


5 


8 




75-80 


9 


26 




70-75 


18 


19 




65-70 


17 


17 




60-65 


23 


16 




55-60 


20 


20 




50-55 


10 


10 




45-50 


13 


8 




40-45 


15 


2 




35-40 


7 


2 




30-35 


3 


2 




25-30 


4 






20-25 


3 


I 




15-20 


I 






10-15 




I 




5-10 


I 






0- 






Number of Cases 


149 


141 


Median 


59-375 


67.5 




Quartile 


10.6 


9.6 



The number of Grade III pupils who equal or exceed this score is 
therefore — + 18 + 9 + 5 or 40.5, which is 27 per cent of the 

number in the third grade, 149. The per cent of overlapping of the 
third and fourth grades is, therefore, 27 per cent. It is illustrated 
by Fig. 5. 

By this method the per cents of overlapping were computed for 
Grade III and Grade IV in all the scales. The results were as 
follows (for illustrations, see Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9): 



Value 
Number 


Scale 


Per Cent 0\'erlapping 

OF Grade III over 

Grade I\' 


I 


Dearborn 




9.8 


2 


Army Beta 




12.0 


3 


Pintner 




152 


4 


Myers 




21.0 


5 


Pressey 




27.0 



Formation of a Criterion 



37 




Fig, 5. Showing 27 percent overlapping of Grade III 
over Grade IV In the scores of Pressey Primer acal« 




Fig, 6. Showing 2X percent overlapping of Grade III 
over Grade IV in the scores of Myers Mental Measure 




Fig. 7. Showing 15.2 percent overlapping of Grade III 
over Grade IV in the scores of Pintner's Non-language 
Tests. 




Fig. 8. Showing 12. percent overlapping of Grade III 
over Grade IV in the scores of Army Beta Examination 




Fig. 9. Showing 9.8 percent overlapping of Grade III 
over Grade IV in the scores of Dearborn 0roup Tests 
of Intelligence, 



38 



Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 



The Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence, the Army Beta 
Examination, and the Pintner Xon-language Tests, which were 
found better than the others according to the slope method, also 
stand high here. However, tests should be ultimately weighted 
according to the variabilities of their scores; the range and deviations 
from the averages should be taken into consideration. The measure 
of variability used in this study is Q or quartile-deviation. Q is 
that distance on the base line of the normal curve which includes 
roughly half of the measure, when laid off on each side of the aver- 

a -a 



age. It is comiputed by (2 



That is, (2 = half of the dis- 



tance between the 75 percentile and 25 percentile. 

Q was computed for ages 8, 9, 10 of both boys and girls as shown 
in Table IV. The sum of these (2's in the dift'erent scales is 62.1 

TABLE IV 

Weighting of the Scales According to Q 



Age 


Pressey 


Pintner 


Myers 


Beta 


Dearborn 


BOYS 












8 


II-5 


10.5 


5-4 


133 


39 


9 


8.6 


17. 1 


5-1 


II-5 


23.0 


10 


II. 7 


135 


5-6 


II. 6 


23.0 


GIRLS 












8 


14.8 


19.2 


4.0 


9.8 


26.0 


9 


8.6 


28.8 


5-2 


10.2 


16.0 


10 


6.9 


150 


4-5 


12.9 


23.0 


Total 


62.1 


104. 1 


29.8 


69-3 


1500 


or 












Abbrev. Total . . . 


6 


10 


3 


7 


15 


Multiplier . . . . 


I 


I 


2 


2 


I 


Resulting Weight 


6 


10 


6 


14 


15 



for Pressey Primer Scale, 104. i for Pintner Xon-language Tests, 
29.8 for Myers Mental Measure, 69.3 for the Army Beta Examina- 
tion, and 150 for the Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence. These 



Formation of a Criterion 39 

numbers were then reduced, for convenience, to 6, 10, 3, 7, 15 
respectively for five different scales. These values of the Q's show 
that, if the raw scores of the different scales were summed up just 
as they appear, the Dearborn Scale with its Q of 15 would have five 
times as great weight as the Myers Scale with its Q of 3; It would 
give Army Beta Scale almost the same weight as the Pressey Scale, 
and these weights did not appear to correspond with the real value 
of the tests. After several trial w^eigh tings, it was finally decided 
to multiply the Myers Scale scores and the Army Beta scores by 2, 
and the other scores by i . The results showed that they were thus 
weighted fairly as their value corresponded roughly with the results 
previously found by the overlapping method. Army Beta Exam- 
ination was found to be one of the best scales, and it should have at 
least as much weight as the Dearborn Scale. Although the Myers 
Scale was not considered one of the best. It was fair to assume that 
it should carry weight equal to the Pressey Scale. The following 
table indicates the weights: 

Per Cent 
Scale Value No. Overlapping Weighting 

Dearborn i 9.8 15 

Arnly Beta 2 12.0 14 

Pintner 3 15.2 10 

Myers 4 21.7 6 

Pressey 5 27.0 6 

After the raw scores of the different scales were w^eighted, they 
were summed up to get a composite score for each individual. 

C. METHOD OF SELECTION OF THE FINAL CRITERION 

After consideration of the various facts known about the sub- 
jects, and Inspection of their correlations with the composite test 
score, the following composite (termed school criterion) of age, 
school marks, teachers' estimates and school progress was tried. 
As previously explained (page 29) numerical values were assigned 
to different ages, so that a young child in an advanced grade receives 
more credit than an older child In the same grade (see Table I). 
Likewise, teachers' estimates of Intelligence and school marks (see 
pages 29, 3 1-32), both of which were registered in letters, w^ere trans- 
muted into numbers. Numerical values were also assigned to the 



40 



Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 



grades reached (see pages 32. 33). To illustrate the procedure, ten 
cases are shown in Table V. Pupil A received a credit of 9 for her 
age, 10 for her school marks, 12 for teachers' estimates of her intelli- 
gence and 20 for her school progress. Similarly, pupil J received a 
credit of 3 for his age, 5 for his school marks, 4 for his teachers' 
estimates of his intelligence and o for his school progress. In the 
same way, credits were assigned to all the elements of the school 
criterion for each pupil. 

This seemed a reasonable weighting of the facts. Their correla- 
tions with the composite test score were .71 for the boys and .91 
for the girls, with an average of .81. Since we may assume that 
the composite average of all the intelligence tests is a fairly true 
measure of intelligence, these high correlations are evidence that 
the school criterion is reasonable. 

TABLE V 

Data for School Criterion (id Selected Pupils) 



Grade. . 






I\^ B (Girls) 








II B (B03 


•s) 




Pupil 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


I 


J 


Age 


Chron, Age . . . 


QJ-rs 
6 mo. 


loyrs 
3 mo. 


pyrs 
6 mo. 


lOJTS 


loyrs 


8yrs 
Smo. 


9 5TS 
6 mo. 


8yrs 
6 mo. 


8>TS 


Tyrs 




Credit 


9 


8 


9 


8 


8 


8 


5 


7 


8 3 


School 
Marks 


Marks 


A 


B + 


A 


B 


B + 


c 


c 


C 


B 


c 




Credit .... 


10 


8 


10 


7 


8 


5 


S 


S 


7 


5 


Teachers' 

Estimates 


Marks 


A 
A 
A 


A 
A 
A 


A 
A 
A 


B-l- 
B + 
B 


A+ 
A + 
A 


c+ 
c+ 
c 


c+ 
c+ 
c 


DH- 

E+ 
D 


B + 

c+ 
c 


c+ 

E-+- 

c 




Credit .... 


12 


12 


12 


9 


12 


6 


6 


2 


8 


4 


School 
Progress 


Grade 


4B: 


4B1 


4B1 


4B2 


4B1 


2Bi 


2B1 


2B2 


2B, 


2B2 




Credit . . . . 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 











oj 


Total . 




51 


48 


51 


44 


48 


19 


16 


14 


1 
22 12 











Formation of a Criterion 41 

However, a combination of the composite test score and the 
school criterion might be still more useful. So, we combine them 
into what we have called the Final Criterion. The S.D. for the 
school criterion is 8 and that for the test score 12. It seems desir- 
able to give each equal weight; therefore, the raw score of school 
criterion were multiplied by 3 and the composite test score by 2. 
This may be expressed by an equation as follows: 

Final Criterion = (3 X School Criterion) + (2 X Weighted Test 
Scores) 

that is, 

Final Criterion = [3X(Age+School Marks -f Teachers' Estimates 
+School Progress)] + [2 X (Dearborn + Pressey + 2 X Army Beta 
+ 2 X Myers)] 

For further explanation, see Table VI, which contains data for 
ten pupils. Similarly, the final criterion was calculated for all the 
pupils. 

The Final Criterion is the standard used to select the best test 
elements from the five intelligence scales for development into a 
valid and reliable measure of intelligence for use in China. The 
success of the work is, therefore, largely dependent upon the validity 
and reliability of the criterion. Now the questions arise: Is the final 
criterion valid and reliable? Are not the elements which made up 
the final criterion repeating themselves? Is it right to include the 
scores of tests in the final criterion and then use the combination 
with the tests elements? It is admitted here that the criterion ele- 
ments do overlap and there is no line of demarcation to differentiate 
them. For instance, when a teacher estimates the general intelli- 
gence of a child she considers his age and school achievement; and 
school progress involves many factors such as age, school marks and 
teachers* estimates. But there is no doubt that every element 
measures something which is somewhat different from that which the 
other elements measure, that no two of them measure exactly the 
same traits. Furthermore, all the criterion elements, as explained 
before, are in some degree measures of general intelligence and 
each of the five scales has been reported to be a reliable intelligence 
test. A combination of all these factors certainly should make the 
final criterion reliable. Finally it must be kept in mind that the 



42 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

purpose of this study is to select the best test elements from the five 
scales; and the criterion required is simply a definite constant stand- 
ard. It really makes little difference whether the criterion ele- 
ments to some extent overlap in their functions, for the final cri- 
terion will be applied uniformly to the tests elements. 

TABLE VI 
Data for Ten Selected Pupils for Calculation of the Fin.\l Criterion 



Grade 


IV B (Girls) 


II B (Boys) 


Pupils 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


I J 


School Criterion 

Age 


9 
10 
12 
20 


8 

8 

12 

20 


9 
10 
12 
20 


8 

7 

9 

20 


8 
8 

12 
20 


8 

5 
6 



5 
5 
6 



7 
5 
2 



8 

7 
8 



3 
5 
4 



School marks 


Teachers' estimates 

School progress 






School Criterion Total 


51 


48 


51 


44 


48 


19 


16 


14 


23 


12 


3 X School Criterion Total 


153 


144 


153 


132 


144 


57 


48 


42 


69 


36 


Test Score 

Pressey 


65 

130 

19 

90 

197 


59 
91 
24 
73 
169 


78 
130 

28 
108 
210 


82 
205 


78 

104 

28 

60 

220 


45 

5 



16 

14 


31 

4 



39 

67 


61 

51 


42 
138 


40 

9 

6 

28 

70 


24 
15 
10 


Pintner . 


Mvers 


Army Beta 


15 

87 


Dearborn 




Test Total 

Pressev-}- 


610 


513 


690 


589 


578 


96 


180 


334 


187 




Pintner-j- . . . . . 




2X Myer-f 




2X Beta+ 




Dearborn 


176 


2 X Test Total (abbre\'iated) 


122 


102 


138 


120 


116 


20 


36 


66 


38 


36 


Final Criterion 

[(3 X School Criterion Total) + (2 X 
Test Total)! 


275 


246 


291 


252 


260 


11 


84 


108 


107 


72 



CHAPTER IV 
SELECTION OF TEST ELEMENTS 

A. SELECTION OF TEST ELEMENTS BY CORRELATION METHOD 

The ultimate aim of this study is to select the best single tests 
from the five intelligence scales, with the hope that they may con- 
stitute a non-verbal intelligence scale for use in China. Chapter III 
has discussed the "final criterion." The present task is to utilize 
it as a basis for selection. For this purpose the correlations of every 
single test of the five scales with the final criterion have been worked 
out. It is assumed that any test element which correlates highly 
with the final criterion is good. This, however, does not mean that 
all the tests which correlate highly with the final criterion should 
be adopted in the Chinese Scale. A high correlation between two 
tests may be because they measure the same traits; and the corre- 
lations so obtained are simply self-correlations. A good intelligence 
scale should measure a combination of different traits, so the test 
elements in the scale should measure as many different mental traits 
as possible. Consequently, the ultimate object should be to select 
those test elements which individually correlate highly with the 
final criterion but which correlate but little with each other. The 
writer has adopted r = .80 as a standard. It is aimed to discover a 
group of test elements from the five scales, which, combined to- 
gether, will give a correlation above .80 with the final criterion. 

Scattergrams were prepared charting every single test element 
against the final criterion, an inspection of which showed the follow- 
ing to have high correlations. 

Pressey Primer Scale, test 4 

Pintner Non-language Tests, tests 2 and 3 

Myers Mental Measure, test 2 

Army Beta Examination, tests 4, 5 and 6 

Dearborn Group Tests for Intelligence, Series I: 
General Examination i, test 17 
General Examination 2 , test 4 
General Examination 3, test i 



44 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

After the scattergrams were inspected, the next step was to 
determine roughly the correlations of all the tests. The formula 
used is Sheppard's, r = cos ttL^ where U is the "percentage of unliked 
signed pairs, "^ and 




n = the number of cases 

/ = the number of + + and pairs 

It = the number of + — pairs 

d = the number of oo, o+ and o— pairs 

All the correlations which, by this method, were found to be above 
.60 were computed also by the product-moment method. Table 
VII shows the results as found. 

Among these tests, the two types which appear the most promis- 
ing are the completion tests and learning tests. Other workers in 
this field find similar results. Each of these was used by the makers 
of three of the five scales tried out and was included in their final 
forms because of its value as an independent measure of intelligence. 
Consequently, these two types of tests have been made the core of 
the proposed Chinese scale. The other elements to be chosen should 
not correlate highly with these two combined, since any other test 
which does correlate highly with them probably measures the same 
traits and, consequently, would add little to the measurement. The 
learning and completion tests selected were those from Army Beta 
(tests 4 and 6) rather than from the others, because this scale has 
had a wider use and more searching criticism than any of the others. 
With these as a basic group, the correlations with ever\' other test 
in all the five scales were made. Table YIII shows the results. 

However, all the completion and learning tests show high corre- 
lations w^ith the final criterion and certain of the correlations of 
the tests against Beta 4 and 6 combined give promise. But to 
"xplore further to see whether a better basal combination could 

^ Thorndike, E. L.: An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measure- 
ments. DD. 170-71. 



Selection of Test Elements 
TABLE VII 



45 



Correlations of Individual Tests with Final Criterion by Sheppard's 
Product- Moment Methods 



Tests 



Pressey i . . . 
Pressey 2 . . . 
Pressey 3 . . . 
Pressey 4 . . . 
Pintner i . . . 
Pintner 2 . . . 
Pintner 3 . . . 
Pintner 4 . . . 
Pintner 5 . . . 
Pintner 6 . . . 
Myers i . . . 
Myers 2 . . . 
Myers 3 . . . 
Myers 4 . . . 
Army i . . . 
Army 2 . . . 
Army 3 . . . 
Army 4 . . . 
Army 5 . . . 
Army 6 . . . 
Army 7 . . , 
Dearborn I 7 . 
Dearborn I 8 . 
Dearborn 1 9 . 
Dearborn I 10 
Dearborn I 11 
Dearborn I 12 
Dearborn I 15 
Dearborn I 16 
Dearborn I 17 
Dearborn II 1 
Dearborn II 2 
Dearborn II 3^ 
Dearborn II 4 
Dearborn II 5 
Dearborn II 6 
Dearborn II 7 
Dearborn III 1 
Dearborn III 2 
Dearborn III 3 
Dearborn III 4 



Number Coh 


imn I 


Column II 


of Cases r (Sh 


eppard) 


r (Product- Moment) 


233 


51 




230 


28 




230 


42 




216 


61 


•54 


234 


59 




235 


90 


.69 


235 


84 


.62 


234 


48 




234 


59 




235 


59 




235 


63 


•51 


234 


66 


•47 


235 


68 


•50 


231 


66 


•49 


229 


54 




234 


39 




234 


30 




233 


61 


•44 


234 


68 


•52 


234 


75 


•65 


233 


45 




234 


66 


.45 


232 


51 




235 


40 




234 


63 


■52 


235 


66 


.50 


235 


42 




235 


36 




212 


72 


.56 


235 


51 


•• 


235 


.39 




235 


.82 


•58 


234 


.36 




234 


.66 


.46 


234 


•45 




234 


.48 




234 


.75 


.56 


235 


.68 


•58 


227 


.64 


•43 


233 


•56 





46 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

TABLE VIII 

Correlations of Ixdiyidlwl Tests with Combinatio.v of Beta 4 axd 6 by 

Sheppard's Formula 



Tests 


No. of 

Cases (She 


r 
ppard 


Pressey i 


346 


45 ' 


Pressey 2 


338 


51 


Pressey 3 


.341 


45 


Pressey 4 


344 


61 


Pintner i 


312 


48 


Pintner 2 


313 


42 


Pintner 3 


313 


61 


Pintner 4 


313 


51 


Pintner 5 


312 


48 


Pintner 6 


312 


34 


Myers i 


297 


45 


Myers 2 


324 


61 


]Myers 3 


319 


51 


Myers 4 


292 


56 


Army i 


371 


66 


Army 2 


370 


42 


Army 3 


370 


51 


Army 5 


368 


58 


Army 7 


374 


33 


Dearborn I 7 


334 


45 


Dearborn I 8 


324 


36 


Dearborn I 9 


335 


19 


Dearborn I 10 


333 


36 


Dearborn I 11 


331 


33 


Dearborn I 12 


336 


19 


Dearborn I 15 


329 


31 


Dearborn I 16 


331 


56 


Dearborn I 17 


297 


48 


Dearborn II i 


341 


45 


Dearborn II 2 


342 


51 


Dearborn II 3 


340 


31 


Dearborn II 4 


340 


37 


Dearborn II 5 


343 


34 


Dearborn II 6 


303 


28 


Dearborn II 7 


305 


37 


Dearborn III i 


266 


48 


Dearborn III 3 


341 


45 


Dearborn III 4 


303 ■■' 


51 



Selection of Test Elements 



47 



be made, correlations were worked out between the criterion 
and various other combinations of tests. The results are shown in 
Table IX. 

TABLE IX 

Correlations of the Different Scales with the Final Criterion and the 
Inter-Correlations of the Individual Tests 



Correlation Between 


No. OF Cases r (f 


'earson) 


Final Criterion and Pressey 


237 


58 


Final Criterion and Pintner 


235 


78 


Final Criterion and Myers 


235 


65 


Final Criterion and Army 


235 


75 


Final Criterion and Dearborn 


235 


80 


Final Criterion and Dearborn I 


235 


69 


Final Criterion and Dearborn II 


235 


76 


Final Criterion and Dearborn III 


235 


67 


Final Criterion and Dearborn I, i— 6 


230 


20 


Final Criterion and Dearborn I, 7 — 15 


234 


63 


Final Criterion and Pintner 2+3 


236 


73 


Final Criterion and Army 3, 4, 5, 6 


232 


714 


Final Criterion and Army, 4+6 


234 


711 


Final Criterion and Army 3, 4, 5, 6-|- 






Pressey,2,4 


234 


696 


Final Criterion and Pressey, 2, 4 


233 


47 


Final Criterion and Army 4, 6+ Pressey 2, 4 


235 


56 


Final Criterion and Pintner 2,3, Army 6 


233 


815 


Army 3, 4, 5, 6, and Pressey 2, 4 


235 


38 


Pressey 4 and Army 5 




49 


Pintner 2 and Pintner 3 


2>2>7 


73 


Pintner 2 and Army 6 


313 


28 


Pintner 3 and Army 6 


313 


37 


Pintner 3 and Dearborn I 


313 


614 


Pintner 3 and Dearborn II 


315 


551 


Pintner 3 and Dearborn III 


316 


57 



Here are shown significant results, establishing the fact that a 
better combination than Army Beta 4 and 6 is Pintner's 2 and 3 and 
Army Beta 6, its correlation with final criterion being .815. They 
are, however, still learning and completion tests. Tests 2 and 3 of 
Pintner's scale both correlate low with test 6 of the Army Beta 
(.28 and .37). These two types of tests really measure different 



48 Nen- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

traits. Pintner 2 and 3 are both included rather than either one 
alone because they really form a single test.^ 

These three tests finally selected were now termed "The Basic 
Tests." They take only ten minutes to perform. The other tests 
to be included with these must be of different type. This could be 
found out by correlating the individual tests with the basic tests. 
The correlations between the basic tests and the individual tests 
were computed and compared with their correlations with the final 
criterion, as shown in Table X. The results indicated that the other 
tests were fairly good as independent measures because their corre- 

' A second significant correlation shown in Table IX is that of the final criterion and 
the entire Dearborn test (.80). However, this should not be interpreted as proof that 
the Dearborn Group Tests are the best of the five scales. They take more than two 
hours to finish, and consequently the high correlation may be due to practice effect. 
Any test if prolonged might result in a fairly high correlation. No single test in the 
Dearborn batten,-, however, correlates higher than .58 (see Table VI) with the final 
criterion. 

It is worth noting (see Table \TII) that when tests i and 6 are eliminated from 
Dearborn Group Examination I, little change in the total correlation is made; also 
that Group Examinations I, II and III each has almost the same value as the other, 
the correlations being .69, .76, .67 respectively. Each part of the Dearborn Scale, 
when used as a single measure of intelligence, is better than the Pressey Scale and just 
as good as the Myers Scale. Each of the three parts of the Dearborn Scale also corre- 
lates fairly high with the Pintner Scale, which also indicates the value of each part as 
a measure of intelligence. 

As a whole test, the Pressey Primer Scale seems to be the poorest of the five scales 
used in this experiment. Its correlation with the final criterion is onb* .58. Tests 2 
and 4 were found better than the other two tests, but their correlation with the final 
criterion was only .47. The correlations were not raised when combined with Tests 
4 and 6 or Tests 3, 4, 5 and 6 of the Army Beta Examination. 

According to this investigation, Myers Mental Measure was better than the Pressey 
Primer Scale, but it was inferior to the other three scales. The individual tests, how- 
ever, all showed fairly high correlations with the final criterion. 

Army Beta Examination as a whole had a correlation of .75 with the final criterion, 
which was good. WTien only the combined scores of Tests 3, 4, 5 and 6 were corre- 
lated with the final criterion, the result was r = .714; and the correlation between 
Tests 4 and 6 alone and the final criterion gave just as good result (.711). This proved 
that Tests 4 and 6 were the best test elements for our purpose in the Army Beta 
Examination. The conclusion.^was further confirmed when these two tests, combined 
with tests from other scales, failed to raise the correlation higher than .711 (see Table 
IX). 

Other things as well as the correlation being taken into account, Pintner 's Non- 
language Scale seemed to give the best measure of intelligence, because (a) it corre- 
lated highly (.78) with final criterion, (&) it did not take a long time to give, and (c) it 
was easy to score. The individual tests also correlated highly with the final criterion. 
Pintner Tests 2 and 3 with Test 6 of the Army Beta stood highest among all the 
individual tests in the five scales. 



Selection of Test Elements 



49 



lations with the basic tests were in general lower than with the 
criterion. Test 4 of the Pressey scale and Test 7 of Dearborn Exam- 
ination I were the best, as their correlations both were below .30. 

TABLE X 
Correlations Between the Individual Tests and the Basic Tests 

(PiNTNER 2, 3 AND BeTA 6) 



Name of Test 


No. OF Cases (Pearson) 


Dearborn I — 7 


287 


26 


Dearborn I — 10 


291 


35 


Dearborn I — 1 1 


289 


47 


Dearborn II — 2 


293 


47 


Dearborn II — 4 


294 


40 


Dearborn II — 7 


295 


46 


Dearborn III — i 


293 


44 


Dearborn III — 3 


293 


36 


Army 4 


313 


58 


Army 5 


309 


38 


Myers i 


253 


51 


Myers 2 


278 


39 


Myers 3 


280 


34 


Myers 4 


263 


73 


Pressey 4 


291 


25 



However, as there are other factors to be considered in the selec- 
tion of the tests besides the correlations, the tests to be combined 
with the basic tests were not finally selected pending further inves- 
tigation . 

B. SELECTION OF TESTS BY RATING 

The rating method is not so accurate as the correlation method, 
but when the results of the latter are known the former can be wisely 
used to help in the selection of tests. Sometimes the judgments of 
specialists are as valuable as objective computation. 

On October 20, 1921, the members of the psychology seminar at 
Teachers College, who are instructors and graduate students in the 
field of measurement, were asked to rate the individual tests in the 
different scales. A copy of the test material was distributed to each 
member and the instructions for administering the tests were read 



50 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

to them. They were then asked to rate two characteristics of each 
individual test as follows: 

a Can many alternative forms be prepared for the test? Assign 
a value of o to lo or more for alternative forms, o value for no 
alternative forms, and the others in proportion. 

h Is success in doing the test due to verbal instruction? Assign 
a value of lo if the success in doing the test is entirely inde- 
pendent from verbal instruction, a value of 5 if the success is 
fairly due to the verbal instruction, o value if the success is 
entirely dependent upon the verbal instruction, and other 
values in proportion. 

The results of the rating are shown in Table XI. 

It was assumed that the instructors and the writer, being familiar 
with tests and their making, would be better judges than the mem- 
bers of the class, and therefore their judgments were weighted four 
times as heavily as those of the students. 

A question of prime importance in the case of any test is whether 
or not it is applicable to Chinese. Consequently, ten Chinese 
advanced graduate students of education were asked to rate the 
tests in the same w^ay as the seminar students. The test material 
was given to each of the judges and the instructions for giving the 
tests were read and explained to them. They were asked, "Is this 
test applicable to Chinese? Assign a value of 10 if it can be applied 
to Chinese very easily, a value of 5 if it can be applied with some 
difficulty and o value if it cannot be applied to Chinese at all." The 
results of these ratings were not so satisfactory as anticipated. 
The writer finally assumed the responsibility, although he was 
guided by the ratings of other Chinese judges, to rate the individual 
tests. The results are shown in Table XII (page 52). 

Both of the ratings of the two groups of judges indicate different 
values for the different tests. The three best tests according to this 
investigation were Tests 4 and 5 of the Army Beta Examination and 
Test 4 of the Pressey Primer Scale. This finding was still not co- 
sidered final and a further investigation was made. 

C. SELECTIOX OF TESTS BY PARTIAL CORRELATION 

To be certain that the other tests to be included in the Chinese 



Selection of Test Elements 



51 



scale should be different in their nature from the basic tests, all the 
completion and learning elements should be eliminated from the 

TABLE XI 

Ratings of the Individual Tests by Competent Judges 

A = Can many alternative forms be prepared? 
F = Is success due to verbal instruction? 



Judges 




U 


% 


Oh 


E 
J 


> 

< 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


I 


J 


> 

< 


+ 

X 




Army 4 


A 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10. 


10 


10 


10 


8 


10 


10 


8 


10 


10 


5 


91 


9-7 




V 


9 


7 


8 


8 


8 


8.0 


5 


10 


9 


8 


8 


5 


10 


10 


8 


5 


7 


8 


7 


6 


Army 5 


A 


ID 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10. 


10 


10 


10 


7 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


9 


7 


9 


9 




V 


8 


4 


8 


4 


5 


5-8 


3 


7 


6 


10 


5 


2 


8 


8 


5 


7 


6 


I 


5 


9 


Dear. I— 7 


A 


3 


4 


7 


I 


6 


4.2 


10 


10 


8 


8 





10 


9 


5 


5 


2 


6 


5 


4 


9 




V 


2 





2 


2 





1.2 


I 








5 








7 








5 


I 


8 


I 


4 


Dear. I — 10 


A 


4 


7 


3 


4 


10 


5-6 





10 


6 





6 


10 


8 


3 


5 





4 


8 


5 


3 




V 


2 


I 


I 


3 


2 


1.8 








3 


2 


I 











2 


2 







I 


5 


Dear. I — 11 


A 


2 


I 


6 


I 


2 


2.4 


10 


10 


2 





3 


4 





3 


I 


3 


3 


6 


2 


8 




V 


I 








I 


I 


.6 




















8 





^ 







9 




7 


Dear. 11— 2 


A 


8 


2 


6 


8 


10 


6.8 


10 


10 


10 


2 


10 


10 


2 


3 


5 


3 


6 


5 


6 


7 




V 


4 


I 





2 


5 


2.4 











I 


° 





9 





5 


3 


I 


8 


2 


2 


Dear. II— 4 


A 


ID 


10 


8 


7 


10 


9.0 


10 


10 


10 


3 


8 


10 


2 


3 


10 


9 


7 


5 


8 


5 




V 


2 





I 


2 


3 


1.6 











5 








10 





5 





2 





I 


7 


Dear. Il— 7 


A 


4 


2 


5 


5 


10 


5-2 


10 


10 


9 





8 


2 


2 


2 


10 


3 


5 


6 


5 


3 




V 


3 


2 





2 


2 


1.8 











I 


I 





10 





3 





I 


5 


I 


7 


Dear. Ill— i 


A 


ID 


2 


8 


8 


10 


7.6 


6 


10 


9 





10 


10 





5 


10 


5 


6 


5 


7 


2 




V 


4 


5 


3 


2 


I 


30 


3 





I 


7 


3 





10 


5 


2 


3 


3 


4 


3 


I 


Dear. Ill— 3 


A 


2 


I 


4 


2 


3 


2.4 


10 


I 


5 





5 


4 





2 


10 


2 


3 


9 


2 


9 




y 


2 


3 





I 





1-4 




















10 











I 





I 


3 


Myers i 


A 


10 


5 


9 


9 


10 


8.6 


10 


10 


10 





10 


10 





10 


10 


8 


7 


8 


8 


3 




V 


I 








I 


I 


.6 











6 








8 











I 


4 




8 


Myers 2 


A 


10 


5 


8 


9 


10 


8.4 


10 


10 


10 


5 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


5 


9 





8 


6 




V 


8 


4 


8 


9 


7 


7.2 


5 





5 


10 


4 





7 


3 


5 


6 


4 


5 


6 


3 


Myers 3 


A 


10 


4 


9 


7 


10 


8.0 


10 


10 


10 


4 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


6 


9 





8 


3 




V 


8 


3 


2 


3 


7 


4.6 








I 


10 


I 





4 





5 


2 


2 


3 


3 


5 


Myers 4 


A 


10 


4 


8 


7 


10 


7.8 


10 


10 


10 


6 


10 


10 


2 


10 


10 


6 


8 


4 


8 







V 


8 


I 


2 


2 


6 


3-8 











10 








7 





3 


3 


2 


3 


3 


3 


Pressey 4 


A 


10 


10 


8 


9 


10 


9-4 


10 


10 


10 


8 


10 


10 


5 


4 


10 


5 


7 


8 


8 


9 




V 


8 


_A 


_7_ 


6 


Jl 


6.4 


_J>_ 


_S_ 


_± 


10 


_3_ 


_3 


_2 


_5_ 


_7 


2 


4^ 


^ 


5_ 


8 



52 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

TABLE XII 

Individual Tests Rated re Application to Chinese 

Tests Application 

At my Beta 4 9. 60 

Army Beta 5 8 . 03 

Dearborn I — 7 6.00 

Dearborn I — 10 7.70 

Dearborn I — 11 7 30 

Dearborn II — 2 8.46 

Dearborn II — 4 8.16 

Dearborn II — 7 7.00 

Dearborn III — i 9.76 

Dearborn III — 3 7.20 

Myers I 7 . 86 

Myers 2 8 . 76 

Myers 3 9 . 06 

Myers 4 8 . 80 

Pressey 4 9. 00 

Other tests. This is done by the method of partial correlation. The 
formula ^ used is: 

y rn - (^12) (^23) 

/12-3 = 



V(i-r\2) (i-r-23) 

ri2 = The individual tests and the final criterion. 
ri3 = The individual tests and the basic tests. 
^23 = The basic tests and the final criterion. 

The results are shown in Table XIII . Test 4 of Pressey Primer Scale 
has distinctly high partial correlation (.60) with the criterion after 
the learning and completion elements are partialed out. As to the 
other tests, the partial correlations vary from —.25 to +43. 

D. SELECTION OF TESTS BY A COMPOSITE METHOD 

The rating method and the partial correlation method both indi- 
cated the general value of the different tests, but each by itself could 
not be used as a basis for the selection of the tests. The best way 

^ For a complete discussion on the partial correlation method, see Thorndike, E. L.: 
Theory of Mental and Social Meastirements, p. 182; and Kelley, T. L.: "Table to Facili- 
tate the Calculation of Partial Coefficient of Correlation and Regression Equations," 
Bulletin of University of Texas, 1910, No. 27. 



Selection of Test Elements 



53 



was to use a combination of all the available methods together with 
a consideration of all the other factors. This could be accomplished 
by first summing up the results obtained from the different methods 
and then selecting the best tests according to the composite results, 
which are shown in Table XIV. 

TABLE XIII 

Correlations of the Individual Tests with the Final Criterion with the 
Elements of the Basic Tests Eliminated {r 12 .3 Column) 

^23 = .815 (r Final Criterion and Basic Tests) 



Tests 



Times 



ri?.» 



Dearborn I — 7 
Dearborn I — 10 
Dearborn I — 11 
Dearborn II — 2 
Dearborn II — 4 
Dearborn II — 7 
Dearborn III — i 
Dearborn III — 3 
Army 4 . . . . 
Army 5 . . . . 
Myers i ... 
Myers 2 ... 
Myers 3 ... 
Myers 4 ... 
Pressey 4 . . . 



42 
43 
23 
38 
25 
36 

43 
26 
07 

39 
19 
28 

41 
25 
60 



In comparison with the other factors, more weight should be 
attached to the partial correlations. Consequently, they were 
multiplied by 50 so as to equalize the values of the * 'alternative 
forms," 'Verbal instruction," and "application to Chinese." The 
last column is the summing up of the four values. A review of the 
combined results shows that the following tests have the highest 
values: 

Pressey Scale, test 4 53 70 

Army Beta , test 5 43 . 33 



54 



Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in CJmia 



Evidently, Test 4 of the Pressey Scale and Test 5 of the Army Beta 
Examination are the best among all the individual tests of the five 
scales to add to the basic tests. These two were consequently 
definitely selected to be included in the proposed Chinese scale. ^ 

With the selection of Test 4 of the Pressey Scale and Test 5 of the 
Army Beta Examination, to be included in the Chinese scale, it 

TABLE XIV 

Combined Value of the Ixdividu.^l Tests as Determined by Ratings and 

Partial r Method 



Tests 


1 
Alterna- 
tive 
Forms 


Instruc- 
tion 


Applica- 
tion 


Partial 

r X 50 


Com- 
bined 
\'alue 


Dearborn I — 7 


1 

4-9 


1-4 


6.0 


21.0 


33 32 


Dearborn I — 10 








5 


3 


1-5 


7 


7 


21.5 


30.20 


Dearborn I — 11 








2 


8 


0.7 


7 


3 


II-5 


22.30 


Dearborn II — 2 








6 


7 


2.2 


8 


5 


19.0 


36.40 


Dearborn II — 4 








8 


5 


1-7 


8 


2 


12.5 


30.90 


Dearborn II — 7 








5 


3 


1-7 


7 





18.0 


32.00 


Dearborn III — i 








7 


2 


31 


9 


8 


21-5 


41.60 


Dearborn III — 3 








2 


9 


1-3 


7 


2 


130 


24.40 


Army 4 . . . . 








9 


7 


7-6 


9 


6 


- 3-5 


23.40 


Army 5 . . 












9 


9 


5 9 


8 


03 


19-5 


43-33 


Myers i . . 












8 


3 


0.8 


7 


9 


9 5 


26.50 


Myers 2 . . 












8 


6 


6.8 


8 


8 


14.0 


37 70 


Myers 3 . . 












8 


3 


3-5 


9 


I 


20.5 


41.40 


Myers 4 . . 












8 





3-3 


8 


8 


-12.5 


7.60 


Pressey 4 . 












8 


9 


5-8 


9 





30.0 


53 70 



was neces5ar>^ to consider the character of these two tests in greater 
detail. A study of their correlations with other elements showed 
the foUowins: results: 



^ Test I of the Dearborn Group Examination III would likewise have been included, 
had it not closely resembled the basic tests. Other important objections to the Dear- 
born tests were: first, the value of the test might be due to practice efiect; second, the 
test, comprising three pages of pictures, was too expensive. 



Selection of Test Elements 55 

Correlation Between: Correlation 

Pressey 4 and Criterion 54 

Army 5 and Criterion 52 

Pressey 4 and Basic Tests 25 

Army 5 and Basic Tests 38 

Pressey 4 and Army 5 49 

Thus Pressey 4 and Army Beta 5 both correlate fairly high with 
the final criterion, and rather low with the basic tests. On the other 
hand , their correlations with each other were not high . This proved 
that the two tests were good measures of intelligence, each measuring 
traits different from those of the basic tests and from each other. 
Because of these special qualities and characteristics of the Pressey 
4 and Army Beta 5, they were chosen, along with the basic tests, 
to form the proposed Chinese intelligence examination. 



E. WEIGHTING BY REGRESSION EQUATION 

It has been found that both Army 5 and Pressey 4 should be 
included in the proposed Chinese examination. The question then 
arises as to the amount of weight to be attached to the two tests 
and the basic tests. To solve this prdblem the regression equation 
was used. The regression equation follows: 



0'l.2?,i CTi .234 Cr\ •2ri4 

Xi = ri2.34 ^2 + ^13-24 ^3 + ^14-23 ^4 

0'2-134 Cr3-124 0"4.i23 



<T 1.234 = (^1 ^i — r'\2 ^i — r^is-2 v^i — r\i.23 



0" 2-134 = 0*2 



Vi — r'^2i V^l — r^23.i V^I — f^u.si 



d 3-124 =0-3 Vi — r^34 Vl — r'^2Z-K ^\ " r'^\z-i\ 

Q 4-123 = Cr4 Vl — 7-234 Vl — /--24.3 Vl " ^-14-23 

^12.34 = ^12-4 A13.4, 23-4 ~ B13.4, 23-4 
f 15-24 = ?'l3-4 A12.4, 23-4 ~ Bi2.4» 23-4 
^14-23 = ^14-3 A12.3, 24-3 ~ B12.3, 24-3 



56 



Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 



TABLE XV 

Data for Calculation of Regression Equation 

I = Criterion. 2 = Basic tests. 3 = Army Beta 5. 4 = Pressey 4. 





I 


2 


3 


4 


I 










2 


•&I5 








3 


.52 


.38 






4 


.54 


•25 


•49 




(7 


45-3 


28.0 


8.1 


5-6 



In Table XV the figure "i" stands for criterion; "2" for basic 
tests; "3" for Arma Beta 5; "4" for Pressey 4. These correlations 
were substituted in the above regression equation and the following 
result was obtained: 



21.19 
Xi = .81 X X. -f 



21. IQ 21.9 

8 X^:^X3 + 48X 



15. II ' ■ 6.60 4.26 

Zi = 1. 135 X, + 0.578 X, + 2.387 X, 



X, 



(or) 



According to the result of the regression equation, the dift'erent 
tests should be weighted as follows: (a) multiplying the basic tests 
score by 1.14; {h) multiplying Army Beta 5 by .58; (c) multiplying 
Pressey 4 by 2.39. In consideration of the general impression of 
the tests, however, a conservative procedure was adopted. In 
giving final weights to the tests, the scores of the Basic Tests and 
of Army 5 were left unchanged, while the score of Pressey 4 
was multiplied by 2. The weighted composite scores so obtained 
(called Composite A) were then correlated with the final criterion, 
the correlation found being .812. This result was very satisfactory', 
since it exceeds the goal of r = .80. In order to find out whether 
the weighting had raised the correlation or not, the raw composite 
scores of the Basic Tests, Pressey 4, and Army Beta 5 (called Com- 
posite B), were also correlated with the final criterion, the correla- 
tion found being .789. This showed that the weighting had raised 
the correlation slightly. 



Selection of Test Elements 57 

It should be kept in mind that the tests chosen are not based upon 
an empirical method of a single statistical computation, but upon 
all the possible available methods, such as correlation, rating by 
specialists, partial correlation, regression equation. The test ele- 
ments finally chosen from the five scales for the proposed Chinese 
Non-verbal Intelligence Examination are: 

Test 2 of Pintner Non-language Tests 
Test 3 of Pintner Non-language Tests 
Test 5 of Army Beta Examination 
Test 6 of Army Beta Examination 
Test 4 of Pressey Primer Scale 



CHAPTER V 
RE-TESTING 

A. PROCEDURE OF RE-TESTING 

The tests to be included in the proposed Chinese intelHgence 
examination having been tentatively selected, the next step was to 
determine their reliability and practicability. This could be done 
by giving the above tests to the same children and calculating the 
correlations of their scores with the final criterion. If the tests are 
reliable and practicable, they should correlate highly with the old 
criterion. An effort was made, therefore, to secure the same sub- 
jects who the year before had taken all the tests. Some of them 
had moved out of the district or gone to a higher school and it was 
impossible to locate all of them, but finally 190 children (from the 
earlier total of 401) were secured. 

The re-testing was done from November 28 to 30, 1921, in the 
same room where the children were formerly tested. A uniform 
environment, which was similar to that at the first testing, was 
maintained throughout the examination. The same principal 
and the same teacher assisted in timing and policing. As in the first 
testing, 28 children were tested at a time; the children being suffi- 
ciently separated from each other, there was no opportunity for 
copying. The papers of three children, who continued w^orking 
after the "stop" signal had been given, were discarded for the com- 
putation of the results, leaving papers for 187 children. 

The directions for giving and scoring the tests were the same as 
those of the year before, with the exception of a slight modification 
in introduction (see Chapter YII for a complete record of the tests). 
Preceding the testing, four boys and five girls were individually 
interviewed. Each was questioned whether he could recall anything 
concerning the tests of the year before. All of them indeed remem- 
bered the occasion of the testing — they remembered "the good time 
they had had with the Chinese teacher," but not one of them could 
recall any of the tests. In other words, these boys and girls had 
completely forgotten all about the first test, except for the vague 



Re-testing 59 

idea of having done it. It is possible that the actual performing of 
the tests might recall the experience in previous testing, but in 
young children of this age the likelihood of recalling the tests of 
the year before seems so slight as to be immaterial. Consequently, 
the process of re-testing these children cannot be said to be influ- 
enced to any noticeable degree by repetition. 

In the re-testing, the children appeared to enjoy their work. 
There was no sign of fatigue; instead, they were very enthusiastic. 
The writer obtained some interesting information, on the effects 
of the tests upon the children, by mixing with them during the recess. 
Joining in their play, he was constantly approached by them with 
such remarks as, "Mister, play some more games with us." "When 
will you come back again?", "Oh, I like to see the woman without 
a nose, and the poor fish without an eye," "There's lots of fun in 
making zeros and crosses." 

The time consumed in testing was from 25 to 30 minutes. It is 
important to note, in discussing the time necessary for this testing, 
that none of the groups consumed more than 30 minutes in their 
testing, nor less than 25 minutes. This, of course, does not include 
the time taken in the distribution of test material nor for the pre- 
liminary remarks by the examiner. 

The method of scoring the tests was very simple. Stencils were 
prepared in order to facilitate the work. With a small amount of 
practice, test papers could be scored very rapidly, even at the rate 
of a paper a minute. 

B. STATISTICAL STUDY 

The first step was to determine the general merits of the selected 
tests, from now on known as "The proposed Chinese Non-verbal 
Intelligence Examination." Tables of grade distribution and age 
distribution were prepared (Tables XVI and XVII), and the 
medians for the different grades and ages were calculated. The 
medians found for the different grades were: Grade III. 101.36; 
Grade IV, 125.26; Grade V, 148.50, The result was encouraging 
as it showed a fair improvement in central tendencies for the 
different grades. 

The median scores for the different ages were found as follows: 
Age 8, 85; age 9, 115; age 10, 128; age 11, 142; age 12, 148. The 



6o 



Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in Chifia 



result was also encouraging. The medians for ages ii and 12 were 
close to each other, probably because the 12-year-old children in 
these grades were duller than the average 12-year-old. 

The last step was to find out how closely the test scores of the 
selected tests corresponded with the old final criterion, which was 
used as a standard for the measure of general intelligence. Conse- 
quently, a scattergram was made and the correlation found, by the 

TABLE XVI 
Distribution of Re-testing Scores by Grades 



Re-testing Scores 



Grade III 



Grade IV 



Grade V 



170-180 . . . . 

160-170 . .. . 

150-160 . . . , 

140-150 . . . . 

130-140 . . . . 

120-130 . . . . 

110-120 . . . . 

lOO-IIO . . . . 

90-100 ... 

80- 90 ... . 

70- 80 ... . 

60- 70 ... . 

50- 60 ... . 

40- 50 ... . 

30- 40 ... . 

20- 30 ... . 

10- 20 ... . 

o- 10 . . . . 

Number of Cases 

Median . . . . 



2 

2 
3 
4 
3 
II 

5 
3 
6 
2 

2 
I 
I 

2 



47 



83 



0/ 



[01. 36 



125.28 



148-5 



product-moment method, to be .8768. The result was very satis- 
factory. Theoretically the correlation between the selected tests 
and the old criterion should be higher than the correlation between 



Re-testing 



6i 



TABLE XVII 
Distribution of Re-testing Scores by Ages 



Re-testing 
Scores 


Age 7 


Age 8 


Age 9 


Age 10 


Age 1 1 


Age 12 


Age 13 


170-180 

160-170 

150-160 

140-150 

130-140 

120-130 

I 10-120 

I 00-110 

90-100 

80- 90 

70- 80 

60- 70 

50- 60 

40- 50 

30- 40 

20- 30 

10- 20 

0- 10 




j 

i 't 

1 ^ 

i 

1 

1 .. 

1 


3 
6 

7 
10 

5 
9 
7 
I 
2 
2 

I 
2 
2 


4 

8 

5 

14 

9 

6 

9 
2 

4 
3 

I 

• ■ 


2 
6 

7 
9 
6 

8 

2 
2 

I 
I 


I 

• • 




I 

I 

I 

I 

■ 


I 
I 


No. of Cases 


2 


57 


68 


44 


9 


4 


2 


Median . . 


85 


115 


127.7 


142.2 


147-5 


•• 


•• 



any of the five scales with the old final criterion. This was proven 
true, as shown in the following:^ 

Correlations Between the Final Criterion and the Different Scales 

Scales Correlation 

The Selected Tests 88 

Dearborn Group Tests 80 

Pintner Tests 78 

Army Beta Examination 75 

Myers Mental Measure 65 

Pressey Primer Scale 58 

^ The first correlation is not strictly comparable to the others since it was obtained 
from the 187 cases of re- testing while the others were from the more than 250 cases 
in the first testing. 



62 Xon-Verhal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

Judging by the results of the correlation of the selected tests with 
the old final criterion, by the comparatively short time to give the 
tests, and by the deep interest displayed by the children indoing 
the tests, together with their other merits, it seems fair to conclude 
that the selected five tests which are included in the proposed Chi- 
nese Xon-verbal Intelligence Examination give better results than 
any of the live scales used in this experiment. 



CHAPTER VI 
ALTERNATIVE FORMS AND STANDARDIZATION 

A. ALTERNATIVE FORMS 

Although the selected five tests are to be considered the best 
among the five scales used in the experiment, they cannot be applied 
to Chinese as satisfactorily as to American children. For instance 
in tests 2, 3 and 5, Arabic figures are used in substitution and num- 
ber-checking. Arabic figures are taught in all of the modern Chinese 
schools, but the children who have not attended a modern school or 
learned the Western arithmetic are wholly ignorant of the meaning 
of them. Chinese children, not of better class families in some mod- 
ern city such as Shanghai, also will be greatly handicapped in per- 
forming test I. They can hardly be expected to draw the filament 
of an electric bulb. They cannot place a postage stamp in its proper 
American position on the envelope, nor complete the drawing of a 
pistol, a bowling game, a phonograph or a tennis net, for these 
objects are rare in China. The same may be said of Test 4, the tele- 
phone, the gloves, the ABC, the American flag, the music scale, and 
so on, are most likely unknown to 99 per cent of Chinese children. 
Consequently, these tests cannot be applied unless alternative forms 
are devised. As explained in previous chapters, alternative forms 
have distinct advantages, besides their application to Chinese, such 
as the prevention of coaching and the provision of material for 
retesting. 

In preparing the alternative forms, the criterions first adopted 
were strictly observed. One point was especially emphasized; 
namely, that the test material should be drawn from a social 
environment common to all people and the test should measure only 
those mental traits which every child has an equal opportunity to 
develop. This means that the test material selected should not be 
dependent upon any social or educational advantages. An attempt 
also was made to bring all of the alternative forms to yield the same 



64 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in ChUm 

result. The writer, however, cannot claim credit for such an 
achievement as yet, because the tests have not been tried out in 
China. 

The first step in preparing the alternative forms was to devise a 
large number of test items. These were then submitted to ten 
graduate students originally from different parts of China. They 
were asked, "Is this common in your locality?" All the test items 
which were marked "Not common" in any of the localities were 
discarded . The selected test-elements were submitted to 2 Japanese , 
2 Filipinos, 2 Indians. 2 Britons, and 2 Americans; and they were 
asked the same question. 'Ts this common in your country-?" 
All those which were marked "Not common" were again discarded. 
These remaining from this double sifting were finally gathered and 
sorted into forms. 

Different methods are required for placing the test-items in the 
different individual tests. For tests 2, 3 and 5, the selection of the 
symbols was made by the chance method of tossing coins. For tests 
I and 4. the pictures were arranged, by the combined judgments of 
three experts, according to their degree of difficulty, beginning with 
the easiest, and ending with the most difficult ones. The best 
method for arranging the tests in the order of their difficulty would 
be one in which the tests are given to several hundred children, with 
the answers scored either right or wrong, and the per cent of correct 
answers obtained. 

In Tests i and 5 of the Chinese non-^'erbal forms, the preliminary 
demonstration is modified. To be uniform with the other tests, the 
marks and pictures to be used for the preliminary demonstration 
are printed at the top of each sheet. This is an improvement also 
because the use of a blackboard may be inconvenient or unfair. 

The alternative forms thus devised cannot be claimed as the final 
forms. They must yet be tried out upon a large number of children, 
the norms for ages and grades must be computed, and the tests 
scaled; but judging by the results of the experiment, there is every 
reason to believe that the tests will prove reliable and useful. 

B. STANDARDIZ.\TION 

The last step of scale construction is standardization — the obtain- 
ing of norms and scaling of the tests. In order to do this for the 



Alternative Forms and Standardization 65 

proposed Chinese Non-verbal Intelligence Scale, it is necessary to 
give it to a large number of Chinese subjects, perhaps 5000. 
The selected tests were only applied to about 200 pupils, very few 
of whom were Chinese. The devised alternative forms, furthermore, 
cannot be tried out in America. It was thus impossible to secure 
any age or grade norms to be reported here or to scale the tests. 
The final standardization must be done in China. However, the 
technique may be briefly discussed here. 

I . Norms 

The purpose of mental measurement is to reveal individual and 
group differences of intelligence. To perform such a function , norms 
or standards of achievement for different ages and possibly grades 
are required. We cannot, however, test all the Chinese people 
between certain ages and compute the average achievement of each 
age. This is unnecessary as well as impracticable. The obtaining 
of reliable norms does not require the test of every child in the coun- 
try, but it is essential that the subjects selected should be in random 
sampling, representing the whole range of intelligence from a low 
degree of moron to a high degree of genius. It is also essential that 
the subjects should be representative of all types of social environ- 
ment in different parts of the country. 

Norms are more valuable when they are stable. When a norm is 
stable, it indicates that the subjects are selected from random samp- 
ling and the number of cases is sufficient. As a rule, the greater the 
number of cases taken, the more stable are the norms; certainly a 
norm can be claimed to be stable only when it reaches the point 
where the addition of new cases does not materially alter the pre- 
vious determination. The safest way to tell whether the norms are 
stable or not is to average the scores of a varying number of cases 
and watch the resulting fluctuations in the average. McCall states 
that "when the addition of, say, 100 cases does not materially alter 
the previously determined norm, the norm has stabilized." ^ 

Norms for both age and grade should be worked out. However, 
in China the age norms will be more important than the grade norms, 
as the grades are not uniform in the schools. Care must be taken, 
however, in obtaining ages to record the actual date of birth accord- 

^ McCall. W. A.: How to Measure in Education, p. 315. 



66 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

ing to both old and new calendar, as many subjects, undoubtedly, 
will follow the custom of reporting ages by years although they may 
be born in the end of the year.^ 

2 . Scaling 

After the tests have been applied to a large number of subjects 
and the norms are obtained, scaling is comparatively an easy task. 
There are numerous methods of scaling tests. For the Chinese scale, 
the writer plans to adopt one or both of the two most commonly 
used methods — an age scale and a percentile scale. 

(a) Age scale: The construction of an age scale merely requires 
the determination of stable norms. Given a norm for each age, any 
pupil's test-score may be transmuted into a mental age and intelli- 
gence quotient. Mental age is obtained from a comparison of the 
subject's performances with the standard for normal children of the 
same age. Let us suppose the subject tested is lo years of age. If 
he can do as much as normal lo-year-old children do. the child 
has a mental age of lo, which in this case is normal. If he goes as 
far as normal 8-year-old children go, his mental age is 8. In this 
case, he is subnormal. In like manner a mental defective lO years 
old may have only a mental age of five, and a genius of the same age 
may have a mental age of 13 or 14. 

The intelligence quotient, often designated as I Q, is the ratio of 
mental age to chronological age. It is a valid expression of intelli- 
gence. On this basis of the Stanford Revision of the Binet Scale. 
Terman ^ suggests this classification of intelligence quotients: 

I Q Classification 

Above 140 "Near" genius or genius 

120-140 \'er\' superior in intelligence 

1 10-120 Superior intelligence 

90-110 Normal, or average intelligence 

80- 90 Dullness 

70- 80 Border-line deficiency 

Below Feeble-mindedness 

^ According to the old custom in China, which still prevails in many portions of the 
country, age is reckoned in years, according to the calendar. For example, a man 
whose 25th birthday comes in December would be considered as already 25 years of 
age in the preceding January. This may be explained as resulting from the literal 
translation of Chinese into English. In the Chinese language, age or "sui" is expressed 
in the phrase "in the 25th year." whereas in America this would be translated as "25 
years old." 

-Terman. L. M.: The Measurement of hHelli}ience, p. 79, 



Alternative Forms and Standardization 67 

(b) Percentile scale: The technique of percentile scale construc- 
tion is described in detail by Pintner.* After the test papers have 
been scored, a distribution table for each test is made. The per- 
centiles are then calculated for each test counting usually from the 
lower end of the table. The 25-percentile or Qi is that score which 
is found by counting one-fourth of the score. The 75-percentile is 
found by counting three-fourths of the scores. Similarly, the 10- 
percentile is found by counting one-tenth of the score, the 20-per- 
centile by counting one-fifth of the scores and similarly for any other 
percentiles. After the percentiles are calculated, the percentile table 
for each test should be prepared. To get the mental index of any 
individual his percentile placement for each test is found by com- 
paring his score with those found in the table, and then the median 
of these various placements is found. Similarly the mental index 
for the class, for the grade, and for the entire school can be found. 
For purposes of rough classification, Pintner has adopted the follow- 
ing scheme: 

Percentile Classification 

84 — 100 Very bright 

72 — 83 Bright 

39 — 71 Average 

22 — 38 Backward 

0—21 • • Dull 

' Pintner, R,: The Mental Survey, p. 2i, ft. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE CHINESE XOX-VERBAL TESTS ^ 

A. THE NATURE OF THE TESTS 

The measurement of intelligence has recently become widespread 
in America. It has been proved very helpful in solving many admin- 
istrative problems. With the hope of facilitating Chinese educa- 
tional work, these tests are therefore introduced. 

The tests were scientifically constructed for the measurement of 
mental ability. They are applicable to a large number of children 
at a time, who are in the Citizens' Schools or Higher Primary 
Schools. There are four forms, all of equal value. It is advisable 
to use different forms in various grades, so as to prevent coaching. 
The period of testing does not exceed thirty minutes. It will enable 
the teacher or school administrator to measure the mental ability 
of pupils in groups for the following purposes: 

1. Classification. The object of classification is to divide into 
homogeneous groups the pupils whose needs are similar, in order 
that work can be more exactly adapted to them. With the applica- 
tion of these tests, a teacher can scientifically determine the mental 
ability of his pupils in a rapid and accurate manner. 

2. Promotion. The variability in the ability to learn among 
children of any grade is great, and their progress is not at an equal 
rate. It is obviously unwise to attempt to force all of them to keep 
the same pace in their class work at one time. The bright pupils 
therefore should be promoted as fast as their ability permits them 
to absorb their work, or their courses of study should be enriched; 
w^hile slow ones may be given more time or requirements upon them 
may be reduced to the minimum essentials. 

3. Pro-vision for the Backn'ard. These tests may give a valuable 
indication of the probable causes of difficulty with troublesome back- 
ward children. Their restlessness, incorrigibility, and lack of school 
progress may be due to a mentality unequal to the strain of ordinary 

^ The material in this chapter is translated from the Manual 01 Directions. 



The Chinese Non- Verbal Tests 69 

school work. The tests may therefore indicate those who should be 
segregated from the normal class and given special courses of study. 

4. Vocational Guidance. These tests will not give prognosis of 
fitness for specific trades or professions except along broad lines; they 
are selective. The test scores will show whether a child should be 
encouraged to take a profession or do unskilled work. For instance, 
it would be absurd to encourage a child whose test indicates feeble- 
mindedness to study medicine or one with a genius to be a riksha 
coolie. 

Although these tests are primarily devised for the use of school 
children, they will be of aid to the employer in making a hasty classi- 
fication of his employees, especially the unskilled laborers; and will 
aid the employee to find early the place for which he is best fitted. 

B. INSTRUCTIONS TO EXAMINER 

1. Any intelligent person who has a pleasing personality can 
conduct a group examination with these non-verbal tests in a reason- 
ably satisfactory manner and obtain fairly reliable results. 

2. The examiner cannot give the examination satisfactorily until 
he has thoroughly mastered the technique. He should try the tests 
out on a smaller group of children than the one to be tested and then 
memorize the procedure. However, he should always read the 
directions from the manual. 

3. The room for testing should be provided with chairs and desks. 
It should be free from distracting noises within or without. No visi- 
tor, school authority, or pupil should be permitted to enter or leave 
the room during an examination unless the reason for so doing is 
imperative. The school administration should so arrange the place 
and time of testing that no one be permitted to weaken the value of 
tests by distracting the attention of the children in any manner. 

4. Children should used pencils rather than pens. Each child 
should be provided with two pencils (with eraser) and the examiner 
should always have on hand a supply of sharpened pencils to be used 
if needed. If a child breaks his pencil, the examiner should supply 
another with entire quietness and as little loss of time to the child 
as is possible. 

5. It is better for the examiner to remain at the front of the room 



70 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in Cliina 

during the entire testing. He should ask the assistant, or appoint 
several pupils, to distribute the test papers. 

6. Before the examination begins, those to be tested should be 
made to feel comfortable, and in an easy, contented but responsive 
form of mind. Ever\' effort should be made to make the testing 
as informal and as much like a game as possible, yet precision and 
exactness in obeying all the rules that have been worked out for 
administering the tests is essential. Otherwise the results obtained 
in different schools will be untrustworthy and not comparable. 

7. In a given school, children should be tested in order from the 
lower grade upward. So far as possible, the same examiner should 
give all the examinations within the school. 

8. The examiner should give the directions in a clear, energetic 
voice. He should speak distinctly, at moderate speed and loud 
enough to make his voice clearly audible to all the pupils in the room. 
He must make sure that each step is understood by all, that they 
turn to the proper page when the new test is to be begun, and that 
they give instant obedience to his directions. 

9. The directions for giving the tests should be followed literally. 
Avoid all impromptu directions since such variations may modify 
the results. Even though the directions are memorized, they should 
alw^ays be read from the manual in giving a test. 

10. All should start and stop together. If a child comes in late or 
leaves the room early, or his work otherwise is interfered with, a note 
of the fact should be put on his paper at the time. 

11. Accurate timing of the results is of great importance. Use a 
watch with a second hand. Have an assistant to act as timer if 
convenient. 

12. The children muit be constantly watched for copying. Every 
precaution against cheating should be taken, yet the manner of the 
examiner should not be accusing or offensive to the self-respect of 
the pupils. 

C. DIRECTIONS FOR GIVING THE TESTS 

Read: "Would you like to play a game?" 

{For pupils who can read and write), "Before we begin I must ask 
you a few questions. First, I want to know your name. Please 
write your name at the upper right corner." (Hold up test blank 
and point.) (Pause.) "Have you all done that?" (Pause.) "That 



The Chinese Non- Verbal Tests 71 

is fine! Now answer all the questions on the whole page." (Pause.) 
"Who has not as yet finished?" (Pause.) 

{If subjects cannot read or write at all, begin here.) 
After all the test blanks are filled out, the examiner should say: 
**Now I want to tell you something about the game. I am going to 
ask you to do things for me. Some of them will be very very easy 
and some will be hard. You will not be expected to do all of them, 
but do the very best you can. You must listen carefully to what I 
say or you will not know what to do. After I say, 'Go,' don't ask 
any questions and don't look at anybody's paper but your own. 
When I say, 'Stop,' you are to quit work at once, even if you have 
not finished. If you finish before I say, 'Stop,* put your hands back 
of your head." 

Test I. Picture Completion 

"Now turn the first page like this." (Hold up the test blank and point.) 
"Here," (pointing) "is the first game. Have you all found it? That is fine." 
(Pointing to it.) "Now look at the pictures at the top of the page" (pointing). 
"There is something gone or missing from each of these pictures. What is the 
matter with the hand? What is left out?" (Pause.) "Yes, one finger is gone. 
Take your pencil and put in the finger." (Pause.) "What is the matter with 
the fish? What is left out?" (Pause,) "Yes, that is right. The eye is gone. 
Put in the eye." (Pause.) "What is the matter with the table?" (Pause.) 
"That is right. One leg is gone. Draw the leg on." (Pause.) "Now listen! 
There are other pictures on this page. None of them are finished. Everyone 
has something gone or left out. I want you to find out what is gone in every 
picture and then put it in. Ready. . . . Go!" (Time limit is three minutes.) 
"Stop! Hands back of your heads!" 

Test 2. Easy Learning 

"Turn over the page and fold your book like this." (Show how to do it./ 
"Here is the second game" (pointing). "Have you all found it? That is fine- 
Look at the three boxes at the top of the page. Now watch me." (Hold up the 
test blank and point.) "The two marks in this box must always go together" 
(pointing to the first box at the top of the page). "The two marks in this box 
must always go together" (pointing to the second box at the top of the page), 
"and the two marks in this box" (pointing to the third box at the top of the page) 
"must always go together. Now you must put in all these boxes that have 
only one mark" (pointing) , "the other mark that belongs with that one. Do you 
understand?" (In case the children do not understand, reread the directions be- 
ginning at the "Some of the boxes in the first row have already been filled in the 
way they should be." "When I say Go," I want you to put in each box the mark 
that belongs with the mark that is there. Ready. . . . Go!" (Time limit i» 
three minutes.) "Stop! Hands behind your heads!" 



72 Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

Test 3. Hard Learning 
"Turn over your book and fold it like this." (Show how to do it.) "Here is 
the third game. It is like the second one, only there are more boxes with more 
kinds of marks to make. Have you all seen the boxes at the top of the page?" 
(pointing and waiting a moment). "Now watch me. The two marks in this 
box" (hold up the test blank and point to the first box at the top of the page), 
"must always go together, the two marks in this box" (point to the second box at 
the top of the page), "must always go together, the two marks in this box" (point 
to the third box at the top of the page) "must always go together, and so on" 
(point to all the rest of the boxes at the top of the page) , "Do you understand? 
That is fine. Some of the boxes in the first row have already been filled in the 
way they should be. WTien I say 'Go,' I want you to put in each box the mark 
that belongs with the mark which is there. Ready. . . . Go!" (Time limit is 
three minutes.) "Stop! Hands back of your heads!" 

Test 4. Absurdities 
"Now turn over the page and fold your book like this." (Show how to do 
it.) "Here are pictures. Every one of them has something wrong. I want 
you to find out what is wrong and cross it out with your pencil. Look at the first 
picture. What is wrong with the boy's face?" (Pause.) "Yes, the eye. Cross 
out the eye, because it is wrong." (Make a gesture to show how to make a 
cross.) "What is \\Tong with the bird in the next picture?" (Pause.") "Yes, 
the bird has two heads. WTiich one is wrong?" (Pause.) "That is right. 
Cross out the upper head." (Pause.) "What is wrong with the third picture?" 
(Pause.) "Yes, his foot is turned the wrong way. Crossout the foot." (Pause.) 
"Now listen! Mark the other pictures on the whole page in the same way. In 
each picture, cross out the one part that is wrong. Ready. . . . Go!" (Time 
limit is three minutes.) "Stop! Hands back of your heads!" 

Test 5. Mark Checking 
"Turn over your book like this." (Show.) "Have you all seen the rows of 
marks and the little boxes?" (Point.) "That is fine! I want you to find out 
whether the marks in each row are the same. If they are the same you are to 
put 'x' (make a gesture to show how the *x' is made), in the little box 
at the side. If they are different you are to put in 'o' (make a gesture to show how 
the 'o' is made), "in the little box at the side. Look at the ones at the top of the 
page. Are these first two the same? (pointing and pause) . Yes, so the mark in 
the box is 'x.' Look at the next ones (pointing), are they the same?" (pause). 
"No, so the mark in the box is 'o.' The next ones are not the same, so the mark 
is 'o.' In the next one which should we put in, 'x' or 'o'?" (when some child 
gives 'x' say) "Yes, all of you put 'x' in the little box. In the next one which 
should we put in?" (Pause.) "Yes, 'o' is right. All of you put 'o' in the little 
box. Now when I say *Go' you are to put the right mark in all the little boxes 
all the way down the page, on one side, and then all the way down on the other 
side." (Pointing) "Ready. . . . Go!" (Time limit is three minutes) "Stop! 
Hands back of your heads!" 



The Chinese Non- Verbal Tests 73 

(Collect the test booklets at once, not permitting any time for 
further work.) 



D, DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING THE TESTS 

Keep the test papers for each group together and score test by 
test in one whole set, rather than running through all the tests in 
each paper. 

Use keys and stencil for scoring. 

Where accuracy is desired, all scoring should be checked by a 
second scorer. 

In scoring, mark the correct items by a check ( V ) and indicate an 
error by o. 

When an item evidently has been corrected by the pupil, the cor- 
rection is the answer to be scored. 

The score for each test should be entered in the upper right-hand 
corner of the test paper, and encircled. When the scoring has been 
checked, a check mark may be made beside the circle. 



Test I 

1. Score is number right. 

2. Allow much awkwardness in drawing. Writing in name of 
missing part, or other way of indicating it, receives credit, if idea is 
clear. 

3. Additional parts do not make items wrong, if the proper miss- 
ing part is also inserted. 

Tests 2 and j 

1. Score is number correct. Maximum score is 50. 

2. Lay the transparent stencil on the paper. The correct sym- 
bols will appear just below the child's symbols. 

Test 4 

1. Score is number right. 

2. Any mark that clearly indicates correctly the absurd object 
should be scored as correct. 



74 Xon- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use m Chimin 

Test 5 

1. Score is right minus wrong number (number of items checked 
that are correctly checked minus number of items checked that 
are wrong). Pay no attention to omissions. 

2 . If other clear indications are used , instead of crosses and zeros . 
give credit. 

3. If pupils give nothing but crosses or zeros the score of the test 
is zero. 

E. TREATMENT OF RESULTS 

1 . When the scoring is finished the test papers should be arranged 
or grouped according to the age or grade of the children. 

2. Then the mean for each group is calculated by adding together 
all the scores of the individuals in that group. The mean so ob- 
tained may be used to represent the attainment of the age or of 
the class. 

F. CAUTION 

A caution should be urged against relying too exclusively on the 
bald test scores as a basis for administrative action. These tests 
when properly administered are fairly reliable as a measure of intel- 
ligence. There is always the possibility, however, that the child for 
some reason may have failed to do himself full justice in the test. 
He may have been sick, or he may not have taken the testing se- 
riously. There is also the possibility that the examiner, or scorer, has 
made a statistical error. So the results of the tests should be inter- 
preted in the light of all such supplementary- information as may be 
available. In the small number of cases where there is a clear dis- 
agreement between the results of the tests and other data, such as 
school marks, teachers' estimates, and so on, an alternative form of 
the test may be repeated and the scores compared. It should be 
especially pointed out that the tests are not a substitute for 
common sense on the part of teacher or principal. 



CHAPTER VIII 
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

1 . Progressive Chinese educators who are planning to introduce 
the measurement movement into China are confronted with the 
problem of procuring suitable test material. China, with her dis- 
tinctive civilization, with her numerous dialects and her lack of 
universal education, encounters great difficulty in the application 
of language tests. This study is an attempt to develop a non-verbal 
scale which, because of the elimination of language, environmental 
and educational factors, may be used either as an independent 
measure of general intelligence or as a supplement to a language 
test. 

2. Instead of forming a purely Chinese test, it was decided to 
select the most useful elements from the best known American non- 
verbal tests which have already been standardized. The following 
tests were chosen for experimentation: The Myers Mental Measure, 
The Pressey Primer Scale, The Pintner Non-language Tests, The 
Army Beta Examination, and The Dearborn Group Tests of Intelli- 
gence (Examinations I, II, and III). 

3. The selected tests were given in Public School No. 108 of the 
Chinese section of New York City to 401 children of Chinese, Ital- 
ian, and Hebrew descent. Most of the children were Italians. 
Since the purpose of the study was to select the best test elements 
and since it was not intended to derive norms, it made no difference 
whether the subjects were Chinese or of any other nationality. 

4. The criterion, after many trials, was decided to be a weighted 
composite of age, teachers' estimates, school marks, school progress 
and test scores. Each of these measures general intelligence, to 
some degree, in a different way, so their combination should be 
reliable. The criterion is the standard extensively used for the 
selection of the best test elements from the five scales. 

5. By the methods of correlation, rating, partial correlation, and 
regression equation, the test elements of the five scales were checked 
against the criterion to determine their validity. The foremost 



76 Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 

valid tests were selected to form the Chinese Non-verbal Intelli- 
gence Examination. Those so chosen are Tests 2 and 3 of the 
Pintner Non-language Tests, Tests 5 and 6 of Army Beta Examina- 
tion, and Test 4 of the Pressey Primer Scale. 

6. The tests thus selected were given to the children who the 
year before had taken all of the five tests. The correlation between 
these test scores and the final criterion was .8768, which was higher 
than the correlation of any one of the original examinations with the 
criterion. 

7. Although the selected tests are the best among the five scales, 
they cannot be applied to Chinese children as successfully as to 
American children, because of the unfamiliarity of the Chinese chil- 
dren w4th the objects shown or situations represented. Conse- 
quently alternative forms were prepared which are international 
in nature and are not influenced by schooling or civilization. The 
alternative forms will also prevent coaching. 

8. The Chinese Non-verbal Tests so constructed are applicable 
to a number of children at one time in the elementary school. The 
period of examination does not exceed thirty minutes, but this short 
time will enable a teacher or school administrator to measure the 
native ability of the pupils as an aid in classification, promotion, 
provision for the backward, improvement in methods of teaching, 
and vocational guidance. 

9. The norms are to be established in China and the final stan- 
dardization will take place there. 



APPENDICES 

A. Sample of Form A of the Chinese Non-Verbal 
Intelligence Examination 




Se&tiaM o^ T«*t I. Picture Cov-i pletion/. 



M 
V 



C 
X 



X 



1/1 


X 


c 


X 


1/1 


c 


X 


k1 


C 


V 


H 


X 


-1 













iectiov oJ-TcstZ. Easy LearNirvo 





D 




V 




L 




8 

-f 




X 






s 

7 


k 
L 


X 




IZ 


<S 


€ 


8 


a V 



SecTioN o|TesTi. Hard LeaYNiNO 












5etTioN oy Tejt4. AbsoYcLtTies 

^V \AV El 

01 Ot^ [H 

LVC LVL ^ 



V^Ol 


a 


I'r^ 


a 


\fOLl 


□ 



7 ISftLOL II VfLJXn 

HOX I1V H Oll\l11 G 



5ectioN ©|TcsT5. M»vIk; ChctJCiwo 



78 



Non- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 



B. Sample of Records Kept 

The following is a sample from the original record book which is 
now kept in the librar\- of Teachers College, Columbia University. 
All those who are interested in the full record may have access to 
it by communication with the proper authorities. 



Boys' 




Age 


Nation- 


Health 


Promo- 


School 


Teachers' 


Grade 


No 


Yr.Mo. 


ality 


tion 


Marks 


Estimates 


Names 




















I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


Jo. G. 


ii8 


9 — 


Italian 


Teeth 


Yes 


B 


CCB 


III A 


\Vi. L. 


119 


9 — 


Chinese 


Teeth 


Yes 


B 


B B B 


III A 


Jo. M. 


120 


9 — 


Italian 


Teeth 


Yes 


B 


BBB 


III A 


De.M. 


121 


9 — 


Italian 


Tonsils 


Yes 


B4- 


ABA 


III A 


Ai. X. 


122 


9 — 


Italian 


Teeth 


Yes 


B 


DDD 


III A 



Thorndike-McCs 
Reading Scale 


ill 


Credit Assigned to 


T 
Score 


Reading 


R.Q. 


Age 


School 


Teachers' 


School 


Age 


Marks 


Estimates 


Progress 


8 


9 




10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


385 


88.5 




89 


" 


7 


2 2 3 


5 


35 


lOI.O 




104 


7 


7 


3 3 3 


5 


37 


107.0 


106 


7 


7 


3 3 3 


5 


.... 






7 


8 


4 3 4 


5 


29.0 


90.0 


89 


/ 


7 


III 


5 



Appendices 



79 



3. 



School Criterion 


Pressey-(-Pintner + 




Final Criterion (3 X 


Total 


2 XMyers+2 X Beta + 


Tests Total 


Sch. Crit. + 3 X 




Dearborn 




Test Total) 


15 


16 


17 


18 


26 


484 


48 


174 


28 


582 


58 


200 


28 


513 


51 


186 


31 


389 


39 


171 


22 


337 


34 


134 



4. 



pREssEY Primer Scale 



19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


Total Score 


Test I 


Test II 


Test III 


Test IV 


Testll-IV 


38 


21 





17 








80 


21 


21 


18 


20 


41 


81 


24 


19 


21 


17 


36 


44 


8 


II 


14 


II 


22 


74 


22 


18 


18 


16 


34 



PiNTNER Non-language Tests 



5. 



25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


Test Total 


Test I 


Test II 


Test III 


Test IV 


Test V 


Test VI 


IMII 


93 


2 


35 


38 


14 


4 





73 


lOI 


I 


38 


33 


18 


6 


5 


71 


80 


4 


27 


27 


14 


4 


4 


54 


58 





22 


22 


14 








44 


13 











10 


I 


2 






So 



Xon- Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 



Myers Mental Measure 



33 


34 


Zb 


36 


37 


Test Total 


Test I 


Test II 


Test III 


Test IV 


13 


I 


3 


/ 


2 


29 


3 


13 


8 


5 


14 


2 


3 


4 


5 


14 


3 


9 


2 





12 


3 


3 


3 


3 



Army Beta Examination 



38 


39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


47 


Test Total 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


\' 


VI 


VII 


III-IV 
V-\T 


I\'-\l 


55H 





7 


6 


15^ 


13 


12 





47 


28 


nV^ 


9 





6 


2I>^ 


27 


14 





69 


36 


82^ 


5 





8 


25>^ 


28 


13 


3 


75 


39 


70K 


8 


9 


8 


17^ 


14 


8 


6 


48 


26 


55 >3 


6 





4 


i6>^ 


17 


12 





50 


29 



Dearborn Group Tests, Series I 



8. 



48 


49 


50 


51 


Grand Total 


Exam. I 


Exam. II 


Exam. Ill 


171 


60 


86 


25 


179 


78 


59 


42 


182 


58 


89 


34 


147 


53 


81 


13 


150 


51 


74 


25 



A ppendices 



8i 



Dearborn Examination i 



52 


53 


54 


55 


56 


57 


58 


59 


60 


61 


62 


63 


64 


65 


66 


67 


68 


69 


Total 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


XIII 


XIV 


XV 


XVII 


XVIII 


60 


3 


3 


3 




2 


2 


4 


3 


I 


4 


3 


4 


4 


3 


3 


8 


9 


79 


3 


3 


3 




2 


2 


4 


3 


I 


4 


4 


4 


6 





3 


16 


20 


58 


3 


3 


3 




2 


2 





3 


2 


4 





4 


6 


3 





14 


8 


51 


3 


3 


3 







2 


3 


3 





4 





4 


4 





3 


8 


10 


52 


3 


3 


3 




3 


2 


2 


3 


I 


I 





I 


4 


3 





14 


10 



Dearborn Examination 2 



10. 



70 


71 


72 


73 


74 


75 


76 


77 


Total 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


86 


9K 


15 


21 


14 


II 


12 


4 


59y2 


8^ 


15 


15 


2 


9 


9 


I 


89^ 


9>^ 


15 


24 


II 


9 


13 





8i>^ 


9^ 


12 


24 


II 


14 


II 





74 


10 


15 


15 


10 


8 


II 


5 



Dearborn Examination 3 



78 


79 


80 


81 


82 


Total 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


25 


14 





II 





42 


15 





4 


23 


34 


14 





9 


II 


13 


3 





2 


8 


25 


9 








16 



82 



12. 



Xon-Verbal Intelligence Tests for Use in China 
Tests Combi.vatioxs 



83 


84 


85 


86 






Beta III-I\-V 


Beta I\ -\'I 


Composite A 


Composite B 


VI Pressey II-IV 


Pressey II-IV 


104 


104 


69 


36 


132 


152 


Ii6 


80 


93 


no 


84 


62 


94 


105 


72 


51 


36 


52 


67 


53 



Tests Combinations 



13- 






87 


88 


89 


Pintner II-III Beta VI 


Deart>orn I I-\T 


Dearborn I MI-.W 



87 


14 


25 


84 


14 


29 


62 


14 


29 


66 


12 


22 


8 


14 


21 



U 






Re-Testing 










90 


91 


92 


93 


9; 


95 




Totai 


I 


II 


III 


I\' 


\' 



166 


50 


48 


33 


14 


21 


170 


44 


50 


35 


18 


23 


U3 


50 


49 


15 


8 


21 


116 


2^ 


49 


II 


13 


20 


116 


49 


38 


6 


8 


15 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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Kelley, T. L. "Table to Facilitate the Calculation of Partial Coefficient of 
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Knox, H. A. "A Scale Based on the Work at Ellis Island for Establishing 
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Kuhlman, F. "A Revision of the Binet-Simon System for Measuring the 
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McCall, W. a. How to Measure in Education. Macmillan Co. (1922). 

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84 Bibliography 

Pressey, S. L. and Pressev, L. W. "Cross-out Tests." Journal of Applied 

Psychology, Vol. 3 (1919J, pp. 143-150. • 
Pyle, W. H. "A Study of the Mental and Physical Characteristics of the 

Chinese." School and Society, \'o\. Mil, Xo. 132 (August 31, 1918), pp. 

264-269. 
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pp. 13-32. 
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VITA 

Herman Chan-En Liu was born at Hanyang, Hupeh, China, on 
December 12, 1896. He received his early education in the Baptist 
School of Hanyang, graduating, in 1914, from William Nast 
Academy, Kiukiang. He was an instructor in the same institution 
during the year 1914-15. He then attended Soochow University, 
from which he received, in 191 8, the degree of Bachelor of Science. 
In the fall of 1918, he came to America for graduate work, attending 
the University of Chicago, from which he received in 1920, the de- 
gree of Master of Arts. In partial fulfillment of the requirements for 
this degree, he submitted the thesis Historical Development of Co- 
education in America. During the years 1920- 1922 , he was a student 
at Teachers College with the exception of the period in which he 
served as the secretary of the Chinese Educational Commission 
which toured America during the spring of 1921 for the purpose of 
studying the American educational systems and practices. 






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